the cedar ledge

Connective Symbols

Conjunction, Disjunction, and Negation

TODO: Finish creating note for this topic TODO: Create Anki flashcards from note See Note

Well-Formed Formulas

TODO: Finish creating note for this topic TODO: Create Anki flashcards from note See Note

TODO: Add this theorem somewhere

Not Sure Section

Theorem 1.4.7. For any sets A and B, (A ∪ B) \ B ⊆ A. Proof. We must show that if something is an element of (A ∪ B) \ B, then it must also be an element of A, so suppose that x ∈ (A ∪ B) \ B. This means that x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈ B, or in other words x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B and x ∈ B. But notice that these statements have the logical form P ∨ Q and ¬Q, and this is precisely the form of the premises of our very first example of a deductive argument in Section 1.1! As we saw in that example, from these premises we can conclude that x ∈ A must be true. Thus, anything that is an element of (A ∪ B) \ B must also be an element of A, so (A ∪ B) \ B ⊆ A.

Conditional Statements

See Note See Note

Converses and Contrapositives

Biconditional Statements

Keep Anki pieces as atomic as possible (see the linked note and think of them as Anki cards instead of "zettels"). [1]

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Chapter 1: Sentential Logic. https://jacobzelko.com/04122023013725-sentential-logic. April 12 2023.

References:

Discussion:

Learning What Every Undergraduate Mathematician Should Know about Proofs

Sat, 01 Apr 2023 00:00:00 +0000

Learning What Every Undergraduate Mathematician Should Know about Proofs

Date: April 1 2023

Summary: Ultralearning project to learn the equivalent of an undergraduate maths or computer science student understanding of proofs and how to write them.

Keywords: #zettel #archive #project #blog #proof

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Motivation
2. Project Goals
  1. What Am I Doing?
    1. Concepts
3. Roadmap
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Motivation

As I am personally moving into applied mathematics for my future graduate studies, I realized I had a deficiency. And that deficiency? How to prove things! "Proof" was always a somewhat scary thing that I encountered in mathematics every once in a while – but at the same time exciting. So, this post aims to allay these fears once and for all!

Project Goals

This process is adapted from the Ultralearning framework posited by Scott Young.

What Am I Doing?

Gain an undergraduate level of understanding of proofs and proof creation on par with maths and computer science students.

Concepts

Sets and Set Operations
- Set Notation
- Union and Intersection
- Complement and Subset
- Power Sets
Logical Structure in Proofs
- Implication and Equivalence
- Logical Connectives (And, Or, Not)
- De Morgan's Laws
- Contrapositive, Converse, and Negation of Conditional Statements
Quantifiers
- Universal Quantifier (For All)
- Existential Quantifier (There Exists)
- Uniqueness Quantifier (There Exists Exactly One)
Proof Techniques
- Direct Proof
- Proof by Contradiction
- Proof by Contrapositive
- Existence Proofs
Induction and Recursion
- Principle of Mathematical Induction
- Strong Induction
- Recursive Definitions
Relations and Functions
- Cartesian Product
- Equivalence Relations
- Partial and Total Orders
- Injectivity, Surjectivity, and Bijectivity of Functions
Cardinality and Countability
- Cardinality of Sets
- Countable and Uncountable Sets
- Diagonalization Argument
Advanced Topics
- Constructive Mathematics
- Proof Assistants
- Zorn's Lemma and Well-Ordering Principle
- Completeness Axiom and Real Numbers

Roadmap

This is based on the Meta Learning step Young described as well as some additional tweaks of my own:

Outcomes: The knowledge and abilities you’ll need to acquire for success.
Topic: The topic to learn
Done: If this task has been completed (X) or not yet (cell is empty)

Done	Topic	Outcomes
X	Set Theory	Understand basic set notation and operations, including subsets, set identities, and Cartesian products.
X	Logic	Understand propositional logic, including truth tables, implications, negations, and quantifiers.
	Proof Writing	Develop skills in writing and constructing mathematical proofs, including direct and indirect proofs, proof by contradiction, proof by contrapositive, and proof by mathematical induction.
	Number Theory	Understand basic number theory concepts, including divisibility, modular arithmetic, prime numbers, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, the Euclidean algorithm, and Diophantine equations.
	Combinatorics	Develop skills in combinatorial counting principles, including permutations, combinations, and the inclusion-exclusion principle.
	Analysis	Develop skills in calculus, including limits, continuity, differentiation, integration, sequences, and series.
	Algebra	Understand algebraic structures, including groups, rings, and fields.

Done	Skill Level	Topic	Concept
X	Beginner	Set Theory	Set Identities
X	Beginner	Set Theory	Set Notation
X	Beginner	Set Theory	Set Operations
X	Beginner	Set Theory	Sets and Elements
X	Beginner	Set Theory	Subsets and Proper Subsets
	Beginner	Set Theory	Cartesian Products
X	Beginner	Logic	Propositions and Logical Connectives
X	Beginner	Logic	Truth Tables
X	Beginner	Logic	Implication and Equivalence
X	Beginner	Logic	Negation and De Morgan's Laws
X	Beginner	Logic	Quantifiers
X	Beginner	Logic	Logical Implication
X	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Proof Techniques
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Direct Proofs
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Indirect Proofs
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Proof by Contradiction
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Proof by Contrapositive
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Proof by Mathematical Induction
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Strong Induction
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Structural Induction
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Proof by Cases
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Existence and Uniqueness Proofs
	Intermediate	Proof Writing	Counterexamples
	Intermediate	Number Theory	Divisibility and Modular Arithmetic
	Intermediate	Number Theory	GCD and LCM
	Intermediate	Number Theory	Prime Numbers
	Intermediate	Number Theory	Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
	Intermediate	Number Theory	Euclidean Algorithm
	Intermediate	Number Theory	Diophantine Equations
	Intermediate	Combinatorics	Counting Principles
	Intermediate	Combinatorics	Pigeonhole Principle
	Intermediate	Combinatorics	Permutations and Combinations
	Intermediate	Combinatorics	Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
	Intermediate	Combinatorics	Recurrence Relations
	Intermediate	Combinatorics	Generating Functions
	Advanced	Analysis	Limits and Continuity
	Advanced	Analysis	Differentiation
	Advanced	Analysis	Integration
	Advanced	Analysis	Sequences and Series
	Advanced	Algebra	Groups
	Advanced	Algebra	Rings and Fields

This table gets more into exact topics and concepts to master. They have an associated difficult level and overall topic. Moreover, this a synthesis of concepts and topics to be covered based on class syllabi from:

MA307: Introduction to Proof (taught by Dan Dugger at University of Oregon)
300:T6 Introduction to Mathematical Reasoning (taught by Chloe Urbanski Wawrzyniak at Rutgers University)
Introduction to Proof-based Discrete Mathematics (taught by Matthew Gelvin at University of Chicago)
MATH 301: Introduction To Proofs (taught by Emily Riehl at John Hopkins University)

Additionally, in the construction of this project, I'd like to thank John Carlos Baez for some of his suggestions!

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Learning What Every Undergraduate Mathematician Should Know about Proofs. https://jacobzelko.com/04012023221538-learning-proofs-beginners. April 1 2023.

References:

Discussion:

100 Million Patients: Julia for International Health Studies

Sun, 15 Jan 2023 00:00:00 +0000

100 Million Patients: Julia for International Health Studies

Date: January 15 2023

Summary: JuliaCon proposal for giving a full length talk on using Julia in an international healthcare study

Keywords: #archive #juliacon #health #equity #mental #juliahealth

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Original Submission
  1. Abstract
  2. Proposal
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Original Submission

Abstract

This talk explores the use of Julia in a novel observational health research study that explores health equity and mental health in ~100 million patients in an international collaborative effort across more than 4 countries. Contributions and efforts within the JuliaHealth and adjacent communities have made working with this data possible. The approaches and results shared will be valuable for potential researchers and will open new frontiers for high performance computing and health analytics.

Proposal

Conducting health research studies at scale to understand the health of specific communities and subpopulations has long been a struggle. This has been due to a variety of issues, such as a lack of international standards in the structure of electronic health records, patient claims data, and diagnoses. Moreover, the investigation of questions related to the topic of health equity (that is, the skewed distribution of health resources or services to various subpopulations seeking healthcare) has been largely stalled due to these problems.

In a previous talk I gave, Using Julia for Observational Health Research, I presented early work on the success of using Julia within the space of observational health research in utilizing the OMOP Common Data Model. In that previous work, I conducted a pilot study to characterize prevalence rates in mental health care for intersectional subpopulations suffering from bipolar disorder, depression, and/or suicidality. This work utilized novel tooling and approaches created within Julia to successfully analyze data from ~2.5 million Medicaid subscribers within the U.S. state of Georgia. This work earned the highest awards at the top observational health research venue, drove another successful grant proposal, and resulted in multiple invited talks. Buoyed by the interest and success of this pilot work, my team and I have moved this project into the next phase: the examination of more than 100 million patients from more than 4 countries across the globe.

In this talk, I will present advances within the JuliaHealth community and the broader Julia ecosystem that have made possible such large scale and federated analyses. In particular, novel JuliaHealth tools such as OMOPCDMCohortCreator.jl will be highlighted to show how to analyze "big" real world data, how using Julia can be of huge benefit within this space, and how Julia community members could start using these tools for their own research. As this study now takes place across multiple countries, time will also be spent discussing how Julia lends itself very well to robust analyses using literate programming tools such as Quarto or Weave.jl and versioning processes through DrWatson.jl or Data Version Control, which can be utilized to handle each country's specific needs. Additionally, I will spend some time discussing issues encountered (both technical and anthropological), ways that the Julia ecosystem could potentially grow to support future work in this research domain, and opportunities for Julia users to get involved. Finally, I will share my personal thoughts on what open questions there are to be addressed in observational health research and how Julia can be a tool to address public health questions and provide insight into questions of health disparities.

In conclusion, this talk will highlight the real world use of Julia in large-scale health research studies built on real world data. Moreover, it will show the potential of the various ecosystems within Julia to analyze and tackle complex questions within health equity. Through this talk, I invite future Julia users and researchers to join me in pursuing the potential of Julia within the space of observational health research.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. 100 Million Patients: Julia for International Health Studies. https://jacobzelko.com/01152023193153-juliacon-study-proposal. January 15 2023.

References:

Discussion:

Asynchronous Workflow Using Julia Tutorial

Sat, 07 Jan 2023 00:00:00 +0000

Asynchronous Workflow Using Julia Tutorial

Date: January 7 2023

Summary: A thorough tutorial on how to use Julia for asynchronous workflows to do many things, at once!

Keywords: #blog #archive #julia #programming #literate #workflow #asynchronous #weave #browser #sync #node

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Motivation
2. Set-Up
3. Simple Workflow Process
  1. Blocking Workflow
  2. Asynchronous Workflow
4. Asynchronous Workflow for Literate Programming
5. Conclusion
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Motivation

I sometimes find myself wanting to execute a Julia file I have just edited. This is different than what the excellent Revise.jl package (created by Tim Holy) does in that I want to execute the full file and not just update function definitions. Moreover, I may just want Julia to do something else entirely upon updating a file or directory. This can be very helpful in analysis workflows as well as literate programming. Creating an extended post on my process for this was inspired by a Julia Discourse post I provided an answer to.

Set-Up

Here is how I recommend setting up your Julia environment to follow this tutorial (I assume you have Julia installed correctly):

Create an empty directory (folder) somewhere on your computer. (NOTE: For sake of this tutorial, I will refer to it as the "test" folder).
Within your favorite text editor (like Notepad, Vim, VSCode, etc.), open this directory.
Open and create a file called "tmp.jmd" (NOTE: Keep the file and your editor open as we will be coming back to this file quite a lot).
Open your Julia REPL within the directory and activate a temporary environment within package mode:

pkg> activate --temp

Add into this temporary environment the following packages:

pkg> add FileWatching, Weave

Install node onto your machine.

I suggest using the great tool, nvm, which allows easy management of node versions.

Install the node package, browser-sync, which allows for syncing of webpages based on updates.

Here is the command you can use in your command line:

npm i -g browser-sync

NOTE: Steps 6 and 7 are not necessary if you are not interested in the section on literate programming

Simple Workflow Process

There are two ways to start this workflow. One blocking (i.e. you cannot use the Julia REPL while working) and another spawning an asynchronous background process to enable you to work with the same REPL. Here is gif showing these workflows in action:

Blocking Workflow

This creates a synchronous task in your Julia REPL that can then run whatever command you want while you monitor a specific file (or folder). In this case, I am making the task print a statement that says “Change Detected!” to my REPL whenever there is a change in the file called “tmp.jmd”.

using FileWatchingwhile true 
    watch_file("./tmp.jmd")
    println("Change Detected!")
end

This workflow is not optimal as this loop continues and locks your REPL from doing anything else.

Asynchronous Workflow

This creates an asynchronous task in the background of your Julia REPL that can then run whatever command you want while you monitor a specific file (or folder). In this case, I am making the task print a statement that says “Change Detected!” to my REPL whenever there is a change in the file called “tmp.jmd”.

using FileWatching@async while true 
    watch_file("./tmp.jmd")
    println("Change Detected!")
end

From here, you could then still interact with this REPL while this task is running in the background. Furthermore, you can change the line that says println("Change Detected!") to whatever command (or commands) you want to trigger.

Asynchronous Workflow for Literate Programming

This workflow allows one to work with a Julia Markdown document with Weave.jl to preview your work in real time. There a few steps to start the workflow but here is how it looks when in operation:

First, execute the following snippet in your Julia REPL to start the asynchronous process to watch for changes and tell Julia to weave the file we will modify:

using FileWatching
using Weave@async while true 
    watch_file("./tmp.jmd")
    weave("./tmp.jmd")
end

Next, run this in a separate terminal:

browser-sync start --server --start --file "./*.html"

or this command within your Julia REPL (NOTE: This will make your REPL session very cluttered but you can still use your REPL):

@async run(`browser-sync start --server --start --file "./*.html"`)

At this point, you should see browser-sync spit out a lot of information that looks something like this:

[Browsersync] Access URLs:
 --------------------------------------
       Local: http://localhost:3000
    External: http://192.168.1.186:3000
 --------------------------------------
          UI: http://localhost:3001
 UI External: http://localhost:3001
 --------------------------------------
[Browsersync] Serving files from: ./

You'll want to grab that URL that looks like http://localhost:3000 in the Local spot and then open that in your web browser. With the URL that you get (it could be on a different port), navigate to http://localhost:3000/tmp.html.

Finally, when you have this all in place, go ahead and add this code block into the tmp.jmd file that was created:

# Hello World This is a Julia Markdown file. ```julia 
2 + 2
```

You should see a few things happen. You'll see a few messages from the Julia REPL stating that Weave.jl is weaving your document to your desired output. Then, you'll see browser-sync say something about updating or syncing. Finally, you will see your browser update to the latest version of your weaved document.

Feel free to play around with this more and see the dynamism of the workflow! I tend to do this when I am iteratively developing reports within Julia and want to tinker within the REPL at the same time I am creating documents. Having to wait for rendering Weave.jl documents and the like was a pain and this took the pain away.

Conclusion

I hope you appreciated this post! If you have any suggestions, comments, or additional workflows this could be used for, please comment below. May your Julia sessions now be even more supercharged!

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Asynchronous Workflow Using Julia Tutorial. https://jacobzelko.com/01082023043553-julia-async-workflow. January 7 2023.

References:

Discussion:

How Big Is a Chunk?

Sat, 07 Jan 2023 00:00:00 +0000

How Big Is a Chunk?

Date: January 7 2023

Summary: An interesting foundation for the notion of 'chunking' in memory and education research

Keywords: #chunk #memory #bit #unit ##bibliography #archive

Bibliography

H. A. Simon, "How Big Is a Chunk? By combining data from several experiments, a basic human memory unit can be identified and measured.," Science, vol. 183, no. 4124, pp. 482–488, 1974.

1. Reading Motivation
2. What Are Chunks?
3. Benefits of Chunk Generation
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

In reading a piece by Michael Nielsen on using spaced repetition to process mathematics [1], he referenced a concept called "chunking". I hadn't encountered this notion in education research before and thought it sounded interesting. So, thus reading the paper.

What Are Chunks?

Loosely based on [2], chunks are constructs which organize and group together units of information input into memory. These inputs can be of any form and the basic units could be things like phonemes in words, moves in chess, etc. that can then be recalled at once (a Bible verse, a Sicilian Defense, etc.). The material stored in a chunk is independent of how many chunks can be generated.

Benefits of Chunk Generation

The memory span seems to be constrained by a fixed number of chunks (although this number varies wildly in the paper). However, we can increase the information stored in memory by increasing the number of units belonging to each chunk. [2]

As regaled by Simon, an example of chunking in action is this:

I tried to recall after one reading the following list of words: Lincoln, milky, criminal, differential, address, way, lawyer, calculus, Gettysburg. I had no success whatsoever. I should not have expected success, for the list exceeded my span of six or seven words. Then I rearranged the list a bit, as follows:

Lincoln's Gettysburg Address

Milky Way

Criminal Lawyer

Differential Calculus

I had no difficulty at all

The variance between chunks and memory can be attributed to larger chunk sizes based on one's expertise with a material. [4]

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. How Big Is a Chunk?. https://jacobzelko.com/01072023205813-memory-chunks. January 7 2023.

References:

[1] M. Nielsen, “Using spaced repetition systems to see through a piece of mathematics,” 2019. http://cognitivemedium.com/srs-mathematics

[2] G. A. Miller, “The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.” Psychol. Rev., vol. 63, no. 2, p. 81, 1956.

[3] W. G. Chase and H. A. Simon, “The mind’s eye in chess,” in Visual information processing, Elsevier, 1973, pp. 215–281.

[4] H. A. Simon and W. G. Chase, “American scientist,” Scientist, vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 394–403, 1973.

Discussion:

Making Math Flashcards Using Spaced Repetition Systems

Fri, 06 Jan 2023 00:00:00 +0000

Making Math Flashcards Using Spaced Repetition Systems

Date: January 6 2023

Summary: Composite guide in using spaced repetition systems in learning maths

Keywords: #math #learning #anki #flashcards #spaced #repetition #proofs #theorems #definitions #project #archive #blog

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Motivation
2. Introduction
3. Principles in Making Anki Cards for Maths
4. Card Types
  1. Definitions
  2. Properties
  3. Theorems
    1. Implication Only Theorems
    2. Implication and Equivalence Theorems
5. Self Testing
6. The "Ankification" of Proofs
  1. Initial Glances of a Proof
  2. Building Out a Conceptual Roadmap of a Proof
  3. Consider the Alternatives of a Proof
7. Conclusion
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Motivation

A major goal in my life is to get better with studying maths. As I fully intend to study mathematics more rigorously, a powerful component and tool in my studying toolbox has been Spaced Repetition Systems like Anki or Memrise. In particular, I wanted to know how to use these sort of systems to study and retain math more effectively in my studies – which sometimes face unexpected interruptions. This post serves as a guide to do just that.

Introduction

TODO: Add this discussion into here How I operate is that Anki is a supplement to my learning and not the whole piece. For example, I use Anki to learn definitions and their properties, but then when I work on proofs, I usually scribble that down into my notes and then try my best at linking together different definitions until I have something pleasant. [11:51 AM]TheCedarPrince: I say “linking” intentionally as my notes are stored within a Zettelkasten where each of the definitions I’ve learned are also found. So then I weave together the notes quickly into longer form pieces or proofs or what have you [11:52 AM]TheCedarPrince: Let me know if you have any questions — happy to hear your thoughts!

Principles in Making Anki Cards for Maths

These principles are curated specifically to think about maths and Anki:

Anki is a complement to learning – it is not the whole process of learning.

With maths, it is required to sit down, to struggle, and fully work through concepts. Anki is at best a complement to help you remember what you have learned or know. At worst, a distraction that one ends up frustrated with as one is not seeing the progress they want to see.

Add small pieces that are worth remembering to Anki.

Be brutally honest in marking an Anki review. [1]
Good cards lead to good results – take the time on making good cards. [1]
If having problems with a certain topic or set of questions, break the topic down to the smallest components possible to better understand the overall topic. [2]

Identify the facts, procedures, and concepts and try to use those in creating smaller supplementary cards to help you with a concept. [3]

Card Types

In maths, there are many different types of things to learn. Accordingly, there are a few different types of cards that are useful to make this learning process easier.

Definitions

In learning definitions, some useful principles to keep in mind in constructing Anki cards that test definitions are the following:

A definition can usually be broken down across the following parts:

- The object to be defined
- Its descriptor (this is a unique definition for this object)
- Notation conventions for this object
- Properties associated with the object 
- Any context that the object may be associated with (e.g. when exploring a set, are we talking about sets with in ZFC Set Theory or within the category of $Set$?) [4]

There can be many different definitions for the same object

- In this case, create different cards for each different definition

Use clozes liberally to study each part of a given definition [5]

TODO: Include example note outline here

Properties

TODO: Add what I have learned about property cards TODO: Include example note outline here

Theorems

As identified in [4], there are typically two types of theorems: Implication Only and Implication and Equivalency.

Implication Only Theorems

Implication Only theorems have the quality that the conditions associated with that particular theorem, when satisfied, imply specific conclusions. Similar to making cards for definitions, there are some principles that can be followed for these sorts of cards:

An Implication Only theorem can be broken down across the following parts:

- The theorem name to be defined
- Its descriptor (the definition for this theorem)
- Any context that the theorem may be associated with 
- Notation conventions for this object
- Conditions of the theorem
- Conclusions from this theorem

Implication and Equivalence Theorems

Implication and Equivalence theorems possess the virtue where if an associated set of conditions are met, imply that two or more arbitrary statements can be equivalent. [4] Making cards for this type of theorem is almost identical to making cards for definitions. The only key difference is that one should also add fields for the equivalent statements that result from this theorem.

Self Testing

TODO: Add section based on question cards TODO: Include example note outline here

The "Ankification" of Proofs

Michael Nielsen wrote an excellent piece on this process called "Using spaced repetition systems to see through a piece of mathematics". Basically, he proposes the use of Anki to deeply understand and study proofs. Personally for me, I am not yet confident in an approach to draft proofs in Anki form. I took notes on Nielsen's "Ankification" and processing of a proof and am including some digested thoughts he had on working through proofs.

Initial Glances of a Proof

Pick out single elements of a proof
Convert these elements to Anki cards

As you pick out these elements and create cards, they may be able to be formulated into definition cards. Or, they may be needed to become their own special sort of card or fact – anything that can help in the learning process.

Building Out a Conceptual Roadmap of a Proof

A proof is not a linear list of statements. Per Nielsen, it is much more valuable to think of it as relationships between simple observations. Each of these connections between observations are not just made for no reason. Rather, determine how to find multiple ways to think of the same observation or come to the same observation that is useful for a proof. At this stage, we are beginning to learn our way comfortably around a proof and finding multiple ways to get to each step in a proof is imperative in building that comfort.

Consider the Alternatives of a Proof

Once you have built significant comfort with a proof, keep considering different aspects of the proof. Consider the alternatives within this proof – if this assumption were changed or that context was altered, what are the ramifications of this proof? This process can continue endlessly but should only stop when you are wholly confident in your understandings of a give proof.

Conclusion

To conclude, this short guide is by no means exhaustive. Instead, I made this as a short reference for myself in studying maths using a spaced repetition learning process. I'll certainly come back to revise this as I continue to work and go through the maths I study to share what works for me.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Making Math Flashcards Using Spaced Repetition Systems. https://jacobzelko.com/01072023041127-making-math-anki. January 6 2023.

References:

[1] “[Guide] How to Anki Maths the right way,” Jan. 31, 2016. https://www.reddit.com/r/Anki/comments/43mf83/guidehowtoankimathstheright_way/ (accessed Jan. 09, 2023).

[2] M. Nielsen, “Using spaced repetition systems to see through a piece of mathematics,” 2019. http://cognitivemedium.com/srs-mathematics

[3] S. Young, Ultralearning. HarperCollins Publishers, 2019.

[4] L. Thorburn, “Using Anki for mathematics,” Mar. 08, 2020. https://www.lukethorburn.com/anki/ (accessed Jan. 09, 2023).

[5] A. Milchior, “How I use Anki to learn mathematics - LessWrong,” Dec. 07, 2016. https://www.lesswrong.com/posts/8ZugMc4E5959Xh86i/how-i-use-anki-to-learn-mathematics (accessed Jan. 09, 2023).

Discussion:

Achieving an Undergraduate Level Understanding of Graph Theory

Sat, 31 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Achieving an Undergraduate Level Understanding of Graph Theory

Date: December 31 2022

Summary: Ultralearning project to learn the equivalent of an undergraduate maths of computer science student understanding of graph theory.

Keywords: #zettel #ultralearning #graph #theory #project #archive #blog

Bibliography

Not Available

1. 1. 1. Procedures
2. Roadmap
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Motivation

I have always found graph theory interesting ever since I was exposed to it back in my undergraduate studies at Georgia Tech. I found out about it through SIR Modeling but personally found the structure of graphs far more fascinating than its application to SIR models. Furthermore, as I intend to be pursuing graduate studies in applied mathematics, why not get started with trying to understand it?

Project Goals

This process is adapted from the Ultralearning framework posited by Scott Young.

What Am I Doing?

Gain an undergraduate level of understanding of graph theory on par with maths and computer science students.

Concepts

Basic concepts:
- Definition of a graph and its components:
  - Understand the components of a graph and the differences between directed and undirected graphs.
- Subgraphs and isomorphism:
  - Understand the definitions of subgraphs and isomorphism and be able to identify and compare them in a given graph.
- Directed graphs:
  - Understand the definition of a directed graph and be able to represent it using adjacency and incidence matrices.
- Graphs and their properties:
  - Understand various properties of graphs and be able to apply them to analyze and classify different types of graphs.
Connectivity:
- Paths and circuits:
  - Understand the definitions of paths and circuits and be able to identify and construct them in a given graph.
- Connectedness and components:
  - Understand the concept of connectedness and be able to determine whether a graph is connected or disconnected.
  - Understand the concept of graph components and be able to identify them in a given graph.
- Distance in graphs:
  - Understand the concept of distance between vertices and be able to compute it using various measures.
Trees:
- Trees and their properties:
  - Understand the definition of a tree and be able to identify and distinguish trees from other types of graphs.
- Rooted trees and binary trees:
  - Understand the concept of rooted trees and be able to construct and manipulate them.
  - Understand the concept of binary trees and be able to construct and manipulate them.
- Spanning trees
Matrix representations of graphs:
- Adjacency matrices:
  - Understand the concept of an adjacency matrix and be able to represent a graph using an adjacency matrix.
- Incidence matrices:
  - Understand the concept of an incidence matrix and be able to represent a graph using an incidence matrix.
Graph algorithms:
- Breadth-first search:
  - Understand the concept of breadth-first search and be able to implement it to traverse a graph.
- Depth-first search:
  - Understand the concept of depth-first search and be able to implement it to traverse a graph.
Planar graphs:
- Planar graphs and their properties:
  - Understand the definition of a planar graph and the properties that distinguish planar graphs from other types of graphs.
- Euler's formula:
  - Understand Euler's formula and be able to apply it to analyze the structure of planar graphs.
- Dual graphs:
  - Understand the concept of a dual graph and be able to construct the dual of a given planar graph.
Coloring graphs:
- Vertex coloring:
  - Understand the concept of vertex coloring and be able to color the vertices of a given graph according to various coloring schemes.
- Edge coloring:
  - Understand the concept of edge coloring and be able to color the edges of a given graph according to various coloring schemes.
Matchings and factors:
- Matchings:
  - Understand the concept of a matching in a graph and be able to identify and construct matchings in a given graph.
- Factors:
  - Understand the concept of a factor in a graph and be able to identify and construct factors in a given graph.
More advanced topics:
- Hamiltonian cycles:
  - Understand the concept of a Hamiltonian cycle and be able to identify and construct Hamiltonian cycles in a given graph.
- Network flows:
  - Understand the concept of network flows and be able to model and analyze flow problems in graphs.
- Graphs and groups:
  - Understand the connection between graphs and group theory, and be able to apply group-theoretic techniques to analyze graphs.
- Graphs and logic:
  - Understand the connection between graphs and logic, and be able to apply logical techniques to analyze graphs.
- Graphs and geometry:
  - Understand the connection between graphs and geometry, and be able to apply geometric techniques to analyze graphs.

Facts

Definition of a graph and its components:
- Vertices (also called nodes).
- Edges.
- Weights.
- Labels.
Subgraphs and isomorphism.
Directed graphs and their representations:
- Adjacency matrices.
- Incidence matrices.
Graph properties:
- Connected/disconnected.
- Bipartite/not bipartite.
- Cyclic/acyclic.
Paths and circuits.
Connectedness and components.
Distance between vertices.
Trees:
- Definition.
- Unique path between vertices.
- Root vertex.
- Branches.
Additional topics:
- Matrix representations:
  - Adjacency matrices.
  - Incidence matrices.
- Graph algorithms:
  - Breadth-first search.
  - Depth-first search.
- Planar graphs and their properties:
  - Definition of a planar graph.
  - Properties that distinguish planar graphs from other types of graphs.
  - Euler's formula.
  - Dual graphs.
- Tree properties:
  - Rooted trees.
  - Binary trees.

Procedures

Representing graphs using different notations (e.g. adjacency lists, adjacency matrices, incidence matrices).
Traversing graphs using different algorithms (e.g. breadth-first search, depth-first search).
Analyzing the properties of graphs (e.g. connectedness, bipartiteness, acyclicity).
Finding paths and circuits in graphs.
Identifying and constructing different types of trees (e.g. rooted trees, binary trees).
Coloring the vertices or edges of a graph according to various coloring schemes (e.g. vertex coloring, edge coloring).
Finding matchings and factors in graphs.
Identifying and constructing Hamiltonian cycles in graphs.
Modeling and analyzing flow problems in graphs using network flows.
Applying group-theoretic and logical techniques to analyze graphs.
Applying geometric techniques to analyze graphs.

Roadmap

This is based on the Meta Learning step Young described as well as some additional tweaks of my own:

Outcomes: The knowledge and abilities you’ll need to acquire for success.
Rationale: Know exactly why you want to learn a skill or subject.
Resources: The resources you’ll use when learning.
Done: If this task has been completed (X) or not yet (cell is empty)

Done	Topic	Resources	Outcomes
	Definition of a graph and its components	[1], [2]	Graph components; differences between directed and undirected graphs
	Subgraphs and isomorphism	[1], [2]	Subgraphs; isomorphism; identify and compare given graphs
	Directed graphs	[2]	Directed graph; representation using adjacency and incidence matrices
	Graphs and their properties	[1], [2]	Properties of graphs; analyze; classify different types of graphs
	Paths and circuits	[1], [2]	Paths and circuits; identify and construct given graph
X	Connectedness and components	[1]	Determine if graph is connected; identify graph components
	Distance in graphs	[1], [2]	Vertex distances; compute vertex distances
	Trees and their properties	[1], [2]	Tree definitions; identify trees; distinguish trees
	Rooted trees and binary trees	[1], [2]	Rooted trees; construct and manipulate rooted trees
	Adjacency matrices	[1]	Adjacency matrix concept; representation of adjacency matrix
	Incidence matrices	[1]	Incidence matrix concept; representation of incidence graphs
	Breadth-first search	[1], [2]	Breadth-first search concept; graph traversal
	Depth-first search	[1], [2]	Depth-first search concept; graph traversal
	Planar graphs and their properties	[1]	Planar graph definition; properties
	Euler's formula	[1], [2]	Euler's formula; structure of planar graphs
	Dual graphs	[1]	Dual graph concept; construction of dual graph
	Vertex coloring	[1], [2]	Vertex coloring concept; coloring of graph vertices
	Edge coloring	[1], [2]	Edge coloring concept; coloring of graph edges
	Matchings	[1], [2]	Matching concept; identification and construction
	Factors	[1]	Factor concept; identification and construction
	Hamiltonian cycles	[1], [2]	Hamiltonian cycle concept; identification and construction
	Network flows	[1]	Network flow concept; modeling and analysis
	Graphs and groups	[2]	Graph and group theory connection; analysis
	Graphs and logic	[2]	Graph and logic connection; analysis
	Graphs and geometry	[2]	Graph and geometry connection; analysis

This table describes the very broad topics, resources I'll use, and the expected learning outcomes for each topic. As I progress through this table, I will add an "X" to each row I have studied. Furthermore, the table is ordered by level of difficulty with "Definition of a graph and its components" being the first topic I should learn and "Graphs and geometry" being the more advanced topics I should study. The topics and resources here are based on [1] and [2] with potentially more resources to add in the future.

Skill Level	Topic	Concept
Beginner	Fundamental concepts	Paths
Beginner	Fundamental concepts	Cycles
Beginner	Fundamental concepts	Subgraphs
Beginner	Fundamental concepts	Isomorphism
Beginner	Trees	Spanning trees
Beginner	Connectivity	Max-flow Min-cut theorem
Beginner	Connectivity	Menger's theorem
Beginner	Eulerian and Hamiltonian graphs	Eulerian and Hamiltonian graphs
Beginner	Matchings	Hall's theorem
Beginner	Matchings	Tutte's 1-factor theorem
Beginner	Colorings	Greedy coloring
Beginner	Colorings	Chromatic polynomial
Beginner	Planar graphs	Euler's formula
Beginner	Planar graphs	Kuratowski's theorem
Beginner	Planar graphs	Equivalents of the 4-color theorem
Beginner	Ramsey theory	Ramsey's theorem
Intermediate	Structure of 1-, 2-, 3-connected graphs	Blocks
Intermediate	Structure of 1-, 2-, 3-connected graphs	Ear-decomposition
Intermediate	Structure of 1-, 2-, 3-connected graphs	Contractible edges
Intermediate	Perfect graphs	Bipartite graphs
Intermediate	Perfect graphs	Comparability graphs
Intermediate	Tutte's synthesis of 3-connected graphs	Tutte's synthesis of 3-connected graphs
Intermediate	Systems of distinct representatives	Systems of distinct representatives
Intermediate	Matching polytope	Matching polytope
Intermediate	Chinese postman problem	Chinese postman problem
Intermediate	Dual graphs	Dual graphs
Intermediate	Graphs on surfaces	Graphs on surfaces
Intermediate	Highly chromatic graphs of large girth	Highly chromatic graphs of large girth
Intermediate	Vizing's theorem	Vizing's theorem
Intermediate	Erdos-de Bruijn compactness theorem	Erdos-de Bruijn compactness theorem
Advanced	Line graphs of bipartite graphs	Line graphs of bipartite graphs
Advanced	Chordal graphs	Chordal graphs
Advanced	Complements of the above	Complements of the above
Advanced	Perfect Graph Theorem	Perfect Graph Theorem
Advanced	Dilworth's theorem	Dilworth's theorem
Advanced	Applications of Ramsey's theorem	Applications of Ramsey's theorem
Advanced	Lower bound for Ramsey numbers	Lower bound for Ramsey numbers
Advanced	Properties of random graphs	Properties of random graphs
Advanced	Threshold functions	Threshold functions
Advanced	0-1 law	0-1 law

COMS W4203: Introduction to Graph Theory (taught by Timothy Sun at Columbia University)
MATH 6014: Graph Theory (taught at Georgia Institute of Technology)
MATH 4022: Introduction to Graph Theory (taught at Georgia Institute of Technology)

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Achieving an Undergraduate Level Understanding of Graph Theory. https://jacobzelko.com/01012023000122-graph-theory-learning. December 31 2022.

References:

[1] R. Trudeau, Introduction to Graph Theory, Dover. DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC., 1994.

[2] N. Hartsfield and Ringel, Pearls in Graph Theory A Comprehensive Introduction. DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC., 1994.

Discussion:

The Analogy between the Relativity of Simultaneity and Information Dissemination

Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0000

The Analogy between the Relativity of Simultaneity and Information Dissemination

Date: December 24 2022

Summary: A thought on the analogy between the relativity of simultaneity and information dissemination in consideration of Marshall MacLuhan's concept of the 'action and reaction'

Keywords: #action #reaction #analogy #relativity #simultaneity #information #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Motivation
How To Cite
References
Discussion:

Motivation

I was motivated to write this thought while writing my review on Marshall MacLuhan's masterpiece, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, while ruminating on his idea that I refer to as the "action and reaction". It feels as though there exists an analogy between Einstein's notion of relativity of simultaneity and MacLuhan's idea concept of "action and reaction" – this note attempts to explain that analogous relationship.

Relativity of Simultaneity recap

- Include Gif like this: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Relativity_of_Simultaneity_Animation.gif?1671940684539

Recap action and reaction idea
Discuss analogy

- How information from Einstein's concept is received relative to time
- How action and reaction occurs simultaneously
- How knowledge dissemination and uptake can change over time 
	- Some will be ready to use the knowledge 
	- Others will be slow to adapt 
-

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. The Analogy between the Relativity of Simultaneity and Information Dissemination. https://jacobzelko.com/12242022202340-relativity-information-gaps. December 24 2022.

References

Discussion:

Relativity of Simultaneity

Sat, 24 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Relativity of Simultaneity

Date: December 24 2022

Summary: An overview of Einstein's concept of Relativity of Simultaneity

Keywords: #physics #relativity #einstein #simultaneity #todo #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Motivation
How To Cite
References
Discussion:

Motivation

I was curious about having a better understanding of Einstein's notion of "Relativity of Simultaneity".

See links:

https://sites.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/papers/AE1905Tsinghua.pdf
https://sites.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS0410/chapters/Specialrelativityrelsim/index.html

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Relativity of Simultaneity. https://jacobzelko.com/12242022211924-simultaneity-relativity. December 24 2022.

References

Discussion:

Zettelkasten

Fri, 02 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Zettelkasten

Date: December 2 2022

Summary: An overview on the Zettelkasten note taking system as made popular by sociologist Niklas Luhmann.

Keywords: ##summary ##zettelkasten #learning #research #tool #archive

Bibliography

Not available

1. Selecting Notes for a Zettelkasten
2. Principles of Zettelkasten
How To Cite
References
Discussion:

Selecting Notes for a Zettelkasten

Criteria for Creating a Note in the Zettelkasten

- **Summary:** Simple criteria for when and how to add notes to the Zettelkasten.
- **Rationale:** Enumerates a robust system for how to add notes to the Zettelkasten

Antifragility

- **Summary:** An overview on Nassim Taleb's thoughts on Antifragility
- **Rationale:** Zettelkastens should be antifragile -- i.e. they thrive off of disorder and chaos and adapt to it meaningfully.

Principles of Zettelkasten

- **Summary:** General principles on how to create and use a Zettelkasten

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Zettelkasten. https://jacobzelko.com/03092020031549-zettelkasten. December 2 2022.

References

Discussion:

Context-Aware Applications

Fri, 02 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Context-Aware Applications

Date: December 2 2022

Summary: Explains what is a context-aware application.

Keywords: ##zettel #ubicomp #computerscience #technology #awarehome #georgiatech #archive

Bibliography

Not available

How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Context-aware applications are technologies that leverage data collected from real-time environments and contexts and act upon this information to create timely actions. This idea was coined by [1] in his paper The Aware Home: A Living Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing Research

Here is the original quote from @kiddAwareHomeLiving1999:

However, progress in the sensing technologies needs to be matched by progress in supporting the rapid development of applications that use sensed information. These applications are what [are] called context-aware applications.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Context-Aware Applications. https://jacobzelko.com/03092020071146-context-aware. December 2 2022.

References:

[1] C. D. Kidd et al., “The Aware Home: A Living Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing Research,” in Cooperative Buildings. Integrating Information, Organizations, and Architecture, vol. 1670, N. A. Streitz, J. Siegel, V. Hartkopf, and S. Konomi, Eds. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1999, pp. 191–198. doi: 10.1007/10705432_17.

Discussion:

Aware Homes

Fri, 02 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Aware Homes

Date: December 2 2022

Summary: A summary on what is an aware home, its history, and its applications

Keywords: ##summary ##technology #ubicomp #computerscience #technology #ambient #networking #archive

Bibliography

Not available

How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

The idea of the "Aware Home" was created by Kidd et. al. [1] in 1999. As they wrote in their paper, The Aware Home: A Living Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing Research,

One of the first examples of an "Aware Home" is the Georgia Tech Aware Home

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Aware Homes. https://jacobzelko.com/03092020033420-aware-homes. December 2 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Principles of the Zettelkasten

Fri, 02 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Principles of the Zettelkasten

Date: December 2 2022

Summary: General principles on how to create and use a Zettelkasten.

Keywords: ##zettel #zettelkasten #principles #atomicity #archive

Bibliography

Not available

How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

"Principle of Atomicity" – each zettel should contain only one idea (principle credited to Christian Tietze).
Each zettel should be self-contained and understandable as a standalone scrap of thought.
Link each zettel and explain why you are linking them together.
Reword gathered information in your own words (unless if it is a verbatim quote or something).
Add references to each zettel.
Don't be afraid to add your own ideas to the Zettelkasten – embrace it.
Have no fear when it comes to organization – the order will arise organically in the Zettelkasten.
Never delete a zettel and don't worry too much about when you create zettels; the more information the better.
Don't overthink the Zettelkasten. Keep it simple and efficient.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Principles of the Zettelkasten. https://jacobzelko.com/03092020031618-zettelkasten-principles. December 2 2022.

References:

Discussion:

The Aware Home: A Living Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing Research

Fri, 02 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0000

The Aware Home: A Living Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing Research

Date: December 2 2022

Summary: Gives an overview of the Georgia Tech Aware Home.

Keywords: ##zettel #awarehome #georgiatech #computerscience #research #archive

Bibliography

Not available

1. What Is an Aware Home?
2. Applications
How To Cite
References
Discussion:

What Is an Aware Home?

In short, an Aware Home is "a living laboratory for research in ubiquitous computing for everyday activities." The home at Georgia Institute of Technology was built to enable researchers ready access to explore the home and implement technologies to monitor individuals going throughout the home – these same technologies, the hope is, would be implement in actual people's homes across the world.

Applications

Some of the ideas for potential use from the home was to:

Support the elderly
Find lost objects
Monitor specific parts of the house (front door, kitchen, etc.)

This would be using a technology known as Context-Aware Applications (click for more information).

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. The Aware Home: A Living Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing Research. https://jacobzelko.com/03092020035135-kidd-aware-home. December 2 2022.

References

Discussion:

Health as a Spectrum

Fri, 02 Dec 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Health as a Spectrum

Date: December 2 2022

Summary: An idea that health can exist on a spectrum

Keywords: ##zettel #health #society #public #archive

Bibliography

Not available

How To Cite
References
Discussion:

I have been trying to understand what health actually is. After much thinking, I have come to the conclusion that health can be thought of as a spectrum. This is similar to the idea that education is a spectrum.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Health as a Spectrum. https://jacobzelko.com/03092020022148-health-spectrum. December 2 2022.

References

Discussion:

Structural Racism

Fri, 04 Nov 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Structural Racism

Date: November 4 2022

Summary: What is structural racism and how it emerges in societies

Keywords: #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Motivation
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Motivation

As a part of this trend, an emerging line of research has explored the health consequences of structural racism (Gee and Ford 2011; Krieger 2020), defined by Bailey and colleagues (2017:1453) as “the totality of ways in which societies foster racial discrimination, through mutually reinforcing systems.”

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Structural Racism. https://jacobzelko.com/11042022160305-structural-racism. November 4 2022.

References:

Discussion:

What Is Intersectionality and Intersectionality Theory?

Fri, 04 Nov 2022 00:00:00 +0000

What Is Intersectionality and Intersectionality Theory?

Date: November 4 2022

Summary: An overview and summary on what is intersectionality and

Keywords: ##summary #intersectionality #theory #health #research #equity #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Motivation
2. Workable Definitions of Intersectionality
3. Why Are Intersectional Approaches Needed?
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Motivation

Intersectionality and intersectionality theory is a really cool emerging area of research within health research. Wanted to create this note to summarize intersectionality ideas.

Workable Definitions of Intersectionality

Intersectionality - more describes an approach to disentangle and understand the overlapping systems of oppression that contribute to inequality (Collins 2000; Crenshaw 1991).

Embedded into this notion are several concepts such as social context and complexity (Collins and Bilge 2020)

Why Are Intersectional Approaches Needed?

Structural Intersectionality as a New Direction for Health Disparities Research - An introduction to intersectionality theory and medical sociological ideas at play within health disparities research

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. What Is Intersectionality and Intersectionality Theory?. https://jacobzelko.com/11042022141714-what-intersectionality-theory. November 4 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Structural Intersectionality as a New Direction for Health Disparities Research

Fri, 04 Nov 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Structural Intersectionality as a New Direction for Health Disparities Research

Date: November 4 2022

Summary: An introduction to intersectionality theory and medical sociological ideas at play within health disparities research

Keywords: ##bibiliography #intersectionality #sociology #medical #equity #disparity #research #archive

Bibliography

P. Homan, T. H. Brown, and B. King, "Structural Intersectionality as a New Direction for Health Disparities Research," J Health Soc Behav, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 350–370, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.1177/00221465211032947.

1. Reading Motivation
2. What Is Intersectionality?
3. Why Are Intersectional Approaches Needed?
4. How Is Health Impacted by Intersectionality?
5. How Can Intersectionality Help Address Health Inequity?
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I was suggested this paper by Sarah Gasman of Boston Medical Center. She suggested it as has it holds great relevance to some of my research on health disparities. I must say, this paper was revelatory and plan a future discussion with the study authors due to how incredible it was to my mind.

What Is Intersectionality?

What Is Intersectionality and Intersectionality Theory? - An overview and summary on what is intersectionality and intersectionality theory as an area of health and health disparities research.

Why Are Intersectional Approaches Needed?

Prior literature has shown multiple examples where an understanding of intersectionality is useful in a health context: - Racism, sexism, and classism are interlocking, mutually constituted, and reinforcing (Collins 2000; Crenshaw 1991; Dill and Zambrana 2009) - Effects of racial, gender, and socioeconomic stratification are nonadditive (meaning that racial, gender, and socioeconomic aspects do not all equally contribute to problems in intersectionality [e.g. gender could have more impact than race considerations in certain situations]). It was observed that the greatest racial inequalities in health were found among women and furthermore seen among those women with higher levels of socioeconomic status (Brown et al. 2016; Cummings and Jackson 2008; Warner and Brown 2011).

How Is Health Impacted by Intersectionality?

Intersectionality highlights the possible synergistic effects of inequality on populations (Choo and Ferree 2010; McCall 2005).

Health is simultaneously shaped by an array of individual-level social positions (Brown et al. 2016; Hargrove 2018; Schulz and Mullings 2006). - Health disparities at the intersection of race and gender can be covered by unidimensional health research. They can overlook the unique experiences of women of color and the multiple forms of oppression that impact one's life (Bowleg 2012; King 1988; Weber 2010). - The relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and health is racialized. Education, income, and wealth seem to be less protective for the health of blacks compared to whites (Assari 2018; Boen, Keister, and Aronson 2020; Colen, Krueger, and Boettner 2018; Hudson et al. 2013). - Attributing perceived interpersonal discrimination to categories (e.g., race, gender, class, and others) is associated with worse health outcomes (Grollman 2012, 2014).

How Can Intersectionality Help Address Health Inequity?

Intersectionality highlights social inequalities in many facets of society, across socially constructed groups, and how social inequalities are not caused by social statuses or identities per se but from systems of oppression (Cho, Crenshaw, and McCall 2013).
Intersectionality demonstrates how social inequalities are shaped by a confluence of factors often obscured by unidimensional approaches (Dill and Zambrana 2009; McCall 2005).
Intersectionality underscores utility of examining systems within and between social contexts (Choo and Ferree 2010)
Intersectionality highlights the complex nature of the social world.

Intersectionality research itself is characterized by its complexity.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Structural Intersectionality as a New Direction for Health Disparities Research. https://jacobzelko.com/11042022134535-structural-intersectionality. November 4 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Fiber Products (Pullbacks)

Sun, 30 Oct 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Fiber Products (Pullbacks)

Date: October 30 2022

Summary: An overview on fiber products (aka pullbacks) and their features within category theory

Keywords: ##summary #fiber #product #pullback #category #theory #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Reading Motivation
2. Basics of a Fiber Product
3. Basics of the Pullback
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

Pullbacks are a central part to category theory so naturally, I would like to know more about them!

Basics of a Fiber Product

Suppose we have the diagram of sets and functions:

X -f-> Z <-g- Y

Its fiber product is defined as:

\[ X{x}_{Z}Y := \{(x, w, y) | f(x) = w = g(y)\} \]

Which has two projection functions:

\[ \pi_{1}: X {x}_{Z}Y \rightarrow X \]

\[ \pi_{2}: X {x}_{Z}Y \rightarrow Y \]

How I would understand that, is by saying that

Basics of the Pullback

Suppose we have the diagram of sets and functions:

W -pi{1}-> X -f-> Z <-g- Y <-pi{2}- W

The pullback of $X$ and $Y$ over $Z$ is any set $W$ for which we have an isomorphism W -approx-> X {x}_{Z} Y. In this case, $W$ is the pullback.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Fiber Products (Pullbacks). https://jacobzelko.com/10312022005339-fiber-product-pullback. October 30 2022.

References:

Discussion:

The Preimage of Elements, Sets, and Functions

Fri, 28 Oct 2022 00:00:00 +0000

The Preimage of Elements, Sets, and Functions

Date: October 28 2022

Summary: How the preimage appears in elements, sets, and functions

Keywords: #archive #sets #preimage #elements #functions #inverse #image

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Reading Motivation
2. Basics on the Preimage of a Subset
  1. Example
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

As I have learned and understood what images are, I am now on my quest to learn what preimages so that I can understand the concept of bundles!

Basics on the Preimage of a Subset

Given some function $f : A \rightarrow B$ and the subsets $C \subseteq A$ and $D \subseteq B$, then the preimage (or inverse image of a set) is:

\[ f^{-1}(D) = \{x \in A : f(x) \in D\} \]

Which has the interesting property that the image of each element in $D$ is in $C$.

For some reason, admittedly, this was more challenging for me to understand than the image of a subset. Why that is, I do not know; maybe my brain has a bit of a challenge thinking in reverse? Personally, I find imagining the notation of the definition more easily followed when it is written like this:

\[ f^{-1}(D) = \{x \in A : f(x) = D\} \]

Notice the subtle notation change I introduced where I said $=$ instead of $\in$ which, although interchangeable here, reads more clearly in my mind. Essentially, you say the condition for this set to be any element, $x$, that satisfies the equation, $f(x) = D$. To me, my brain translates that condition into a fun challenge rather than an abstract $\in D$ which reads less concretely.

Example

Let $X = \R$, $Y = \R$, $V = \{1, 4, 9, 16, 25\}$ which we know the fact that $V \subseteq Y$, and $f : x \rightarrow x^{2}$.

Using the definition:

\[ f^{-1}(V) = \{x \in X : f(x) \in V\} \]

We can create a few equations that can help us generating the set:

\[ x^{2} = 1 \] \[ x^{2} = 4 \] \[ x^{2} = 9 \] \[ x^{2} = 16 \] \[ x^{2} = 25 \]

And solving these equations gives the following solutions:

\[ x^{2} = 1; x = \pm 1 \] \[ x^{2} = 4; x = \pm 2 \] \[ x^{2} = 9; x = \pm 3 \] \[ x^{2} = 16; x = \pm 4 \] \[ x^{2} = 25; x = \pm 5 \]

And we can write our solution to the inverse image of the set $V$ being the following:

\[ \{-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5\} \]

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. The Preimage of Elements, Sets, and Functions. https://jacobzelko.com/10282022132046-preimage-of-sets. October 28 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Images of Elements, Sets, and Functions

Sat, 15 Oct 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Images of Elements, Sets, and Functions

Date: October 15 2022

Summary: An overview on determining the image of elements, sets, and functions

Keywords: ##summary #image #set #function #element #subset #domain #range #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Reading Motivation
2. The Basics on the Images of Elements
  1. Example
3. The Basics on the Images of Subsets
  1. Example
4. The Basics on the Images of Functions
  1. Example
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I wanted to understand more about the ideas of images as an avenue to understand bundles.

The Basics on the Images of Elements

If there is some element $x \in X$, and some function $f$, the image of $x$ under $f$ (i.e. the image of the element), is the value of $f$ applied to $x$:

\[ im(x) = f(x) \]

In other words, I would read this as

Given some element $x$, its image is whatever $f$ maps $x$ to – the function's output for $x$.

Example

Let $x = 4$ and $f : x \rightarrow \sqrt{x}$. What is the image of $x$?

Using the definition:

\[ im(x) = f(x) \]

We can then know:

\[ im(x) = f(4) = 2 \]

The Basics on the Images of Subsets

Given $f : X \rightarrow Y$ and $W \subseteq X$, the image of $W$ under $f$ is:

\[ im(f(W)) = f(W) = \{f(x) | x \in W \} \]

How I might read this is:

If we have two sets, $X$ and $Y$, and a subset $W \subseteq X$ (a subset of $X$) while also having a function that maps values of $X$ to $Y$ and we want to know the image of the subset, $W$, we can have $f$ operate on each element $x \in W$. This generates the image of $W$!

Example

Let $X = \R$, $Y = +\R$, $W = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5\}$ and $f : x \rightarrow x^{2}$. What is the image of $W$ under $f$?

Using the generic definition:

\[ im(f(W)) = f(W) = \{f(x) | x \in W \} \]

We can then write the set as follows:

\[ im(f(W)) = \{1, 4, 9, 16, 25\} \]

The Basics on the Images of Functions

If we have two sets, $X$ and $Y$, and a function $f : X \rightarrow Y$ which sends $x \in X$ to $Y$, the image of this function (denoted $im(f)$), is:

\[ im(f) = \{f(x) | x \in X\} \subseteq Y \]

So, what does that mean or how do we read this? In short, I would read this as:

Given $x$ as an element in $X$, the image of the function $f$ are the values that $x$ is mapped to in $Y$ via $f$. Because each value is mapped to the domain $Y$, those values form a subset of $Y$.

This explanation may look familiar as the image of a function is actually synonymous to a function's range! 😱 Typically though, to be a bit more rigorous, the word range is not used in this setting but rather image.

Example

Let $X = \R$, $Y = +\R$, and $f : x \rightarrow x^{2}$. What is the image of $f$?

Using the generic definition:

\[ im(f) = \{f(x) | x \in X\} \subseteq Y \]

We can then write the set as follows:

\[ im(f) = \{0, ..., .01, ..., 25, ..., \infin\} \subseteq Y \]

In this example, based on the definition we have for an $im(f)$, the $im(f)$ is all possible outputs that $f$ can generate which is the range $+\R$.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Images of Elements, Sets, and Functions. https://jacobzelko.com/10152022173643-image-of-sets. October 15 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Clarifying Understanding of Coproducts

Sun, 02 Oct 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Clarifying Understanding of Coproducts

Date: October 2 2022

Summary: A line of questioning to ensure I understand what coproducts and disjoint unions are

Keywords: #question #zulip #category #theory #coproducts #disjoint #union #set #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Reading Motivation
2. Question
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

This is a question to clarify my understand of coproducts as I have largely spent some time in understanding what they are and how to interpret them.

Question

Hi everyone,

I was hoping I could get some clarification on my understanding of coproducts as I believe I have finally wrapped my head around them, but I want to be clear that I do. To understand coproducts, I started with the set theory definition of a coproduct:

\[ \bigcup_{i \in I} \{(x, i): x \in A_{i}\} \]

where $i \in I$ denotes indexing from some index set, $I$, using the index term, $i$ and $A_{i}$ represents some family of sets indexed by $i$ and $x$ is some element of the respective $A_{i}$ set. Then, based on readings from Category Theory texts, I have gathered that the following is equivalent notation to the formal set theory definition: $\bigsqcup_{i \in I} A_{i}$. As an example to make sure I am on the right track, here is a small simple problem and its solution according to my understanding:

Find $\bigsqcup_{i \in I} A_{i}$ given the following:

\[ > I = \{1, 2, 3\} > \]

\[ > A = \{\{1, 2, 3\}, \{2, 4, 6\}\} > \]

Solution: $\bigsqcup_{i \in I} A_{i} = \{(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (2, 2), (4, 2), (6, 2)\}$

Where I am confused is the following:

What is the difference between $\bigsqcup_{i \in I} A_{i}$ and $\coprod_{i \in I} A_{i}$ and $X_{1} \coprod X_{2}$ syntax notation (the latter notation concerns two specific sets)?

I have seen all notations when referring to coproducts when viewed from both set theory and category theory perspectives. Is it a matter of aesthetic or is there a functional/semantic difference occurring?

I have read that coproducts are also known as disjoint unions.

I read about disjoint unions from a set theory perspective and also a category theory perspective but cannot really discern a functional (i.e. practical) difference from coproducts. Are coproducts and disjoint unions really effectively the same idea?

Thanks all and let me know if I can clarify anywhere!

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Clarifying Understanding of Coproducts. https://jacobzelko.com/10022022214249-understanding-coproducts. October 2 2022.

References:

Discussion:

A Beginner's to Master's Guide in Learning Lua

Sat, 01 Oct 2022 00:00:00 +0000

A Beginner's to Master's Guide in Learning Lua

Date: October 1 2022

Summary: My notes on learning the Lua programming language

Keywords: #archive #lua #quick #start #programming

Bibliography

https://github.com/medwatt/Notes/blob/main/Lua/LuaQuickGuide.ipynb

1. Reading Motivation
2. Comments
3. Variable Scope
  1. Global Scope
  2. Local Scope
4. Variable Assignments
5. Variable Types
6. Math Operators
7. Relational Operators
8. Logical Operators
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I wanted to learn Lua for no other reason than to program my own workflow in neovim. Also, Lua is cool and Just-in-Time compiled like Julia! Plus, it is used for game development so if ever this research thing doesn't work out, backup plan: become a game developer.

Comments

How to write comments within Lua!

-- This is my comment! --[[ 
	This
	is 
	a 
	multiline 
	comment! 
--]]

Variable Scope

Global Scope

All variables within lua are considered global by default. Moreover, each call or line within a lua script is run as a chunk.

Var = 10
print( "Global var:", Var )

Local Scope

To define a large chunk where variables are local in scope, one can create a local scope using a do-end block

do
	local Var = 20
	print( "Local Var:", Var )
end

Variable Assignments

A = A + 1 -- This works 
A += 1 -- This does not work B = 0 -- This works
C = 0 -- This works
B, C = 0, 0 -- This works
B = C = 0 -- This does not work

Variable Types

There are eight basic types within Lua:

nil - represents absence of data
boolean
number - integer and float both exist as alternative subtypes of number
string
userdata
function
thread
table

print( type("Hello") ) -- string 
print( type(10.4 * 3) ) -- number 
print( type({1, 2, 3}) ) -- table
print( type(print) ) -- function 
print( type(true) ) -- boolean 
print( type(nil) ) -- nil

NOTE: Arithmetic operations applied to an object of type string will not fail but instead Lua will attempt to convert that object to a number type. Vice-versa to this is that if a object of type number is used in a string operation, Lua will attempt to convert that object to a string.

Math Operators

A = 100
B = 2 print( A + B ) -- Addition
print( A - B ) -- Subtraction 
print( A * B ) -- Multiplication
print( A ^ B ) -- Exponents 
print( A / B ) -- Division
print( A // B ) -- Floor
print( A % B ) -- Modulus
print( -A ) -- Negation

Relational Operators

A = 20
B = 4print(A == B) -- false
print(A ~= B) -- true
print(A > B) -- true
print(A < B) -- false
print(A >= B) -- true
print(A <= B) -- false

Logical Operators

print(true and 10) -- evaluates to `10`
print(10 and true) -- evaluates `true`
print(false and 10) -- short circuits to `false`
print(false or 10) -- evaluates to `10`
print(nil and 10) -- evaluates to `nil`
print(nil or 10) -- evaluates to `10`
print(false and nil) -- evaluates to `false`
print(false and not(nil)) -- evaluates to `false`

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. A Beginner's to Master's Guide in Learning Lua. https://jacobzelko.com/10012022184345-learning-lua. October 1 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Indexed Sets (Or How to Index Sets)

Fri, 30 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Indexed Sets (Or How to Index Sets)

Date: September 30 2022

Summary: An attempt at understanding what are indexed sets and the various forms index sets can take

Keywords: #set #theory #index #infinite #finite #interval #archive

Bibliography

Indexed Sets, (Nov. 27, 2020). Accessed: Oct. 01, 2022. [Online Video]. Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZoR93jR9Ok0

1. Reading Motivation
2. Building an Intuition for Index Sets
  1. Union Example Where $I$ Is a Finite Set of Integers
  2. Union Example Where $I$ Is a Countably Infinite Set of Integers
  3. Union Example Where $I$ Is an Interval
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I was very confused about nomenclature concerning indexed sets and how to interpret them.

Building an Intuition for Index Sets

An index set $I$ can be nearly anything. The following examples build intuition to that statement:

Union Example Where $I$ Is a Finite Set of Integers

For example, to build an initial intuition on what an index set actually is, we can imagine it as a set of integers. For the following problem, let's find the union of three different sets using the index set $I$:

Let the following hold:

\[ I = \{1, 2, 3\} \] \[ A_{1} = \{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5\} \] \[ A_{2} = \{-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2\} \] \[ A_{3} = \{-4, -2, 0, 2, 4\} \]

The intersection of these three sets can be denoted as follows: $\bigcup_{i \in I} A_{i}$. This syntax is also synonymous with the following syntax that may be more easily read: $\bigcup_{i=1}^{3} A_{i}$. Either syntax means loosely, "create the union between sets $A_{1}$ through $A_{n}$." The solution to this problem would be:

\[ \bigcup_{i \in I} A_{i} = \bigcup_{i=1}^{3} A_{i} = \{-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,3, 4, 5\} \]

NOTE: $A_{1}, A_{2}, A_{3}$ are independent sets and do not form a family of sets.

Union Example Where $I$ Is a Countably Infinite Set of Integers

For example, one can also have an index set be infinite! 😱 For the following problem, let's find the union of three different sets using the index set $I$:

Let the following hold:

\[ I = \N = \{1, 2, 3, \dots \} \] \[ A_{i} = \{-i, 0, i\} \]

In this case, $A_{i}$ is a condition that prescribes the formation of independent sets. So from $A_{i}$ we could get the following sets using the infinite index set, $I$:

:$A*{i} = {-i, 0, i} = \begin{cases} A*{1} = {-1, 0, 1}, i = 1 \ A*{2} = {-2, 0, 2}, i = 2 \ A*{3} = {-3, 0, 3}, i = 3 \ \phantom{––} \dots \end{cases} :$

The solution to this is as follows:

\[ \bigcup_{i \in I} A_{i} = \bigcup_{i \in 1}^{\N} A_{i} = \Z \]

Union Example Where $I$ Is an Interval

Another form of index sets can be that they emerge over a interval and not discretely defined values – which sounds a bit terrifying at first! 🤯 So, to delve into this, let's consider:

Let the following hold true:

\[ I = [-1, 1] \] \[ A_{i} = \{i\} \times [0, 1] \]

, where $A_{i}$ is a subset of $\R^{2}$ (i.e. $A_{i} \subseteq R^{2}$).

If we ask what is the union of $A_{i}$, given that $I$ is uncountably infinite, the answer would be:

\[ \bigcup_{i \in I} A_{i} = [-1, 1] \times [0, 1] \]

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Indexed Sets (Or How to Index Sets). https://jacobzelko.com/09302022040126-indexed-sets. September 30 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Family of Sets

Thu, 29 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Family of Sets

Date: September 29 2022

Summary: A simple overview on what a family of sets actually is

Keywords: ##summary #set #family #subset #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Reading Motivation
2. Family of Sets
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I am having trouble reading some set theoretic notation. Hoping by gaining better familiarity with family of sets, I can understand notation better.

Family of Sets

In brief, a family of sets could be the following:

Definition 1: A family of sets, $F$, could be a set of subsets over a set $X$. An example of this would be the following scenario:

Let $X = {1, 2, 3, 4}$

\[ F = \{\{\emptyset\}, \{1, 2 \},\{3, 4\}\} \] \[ F \]

is non-exhaustive as there could be more subsets derived from $X$.

Definition 2: A family of sets, $F$, could be a set of sets where each set is independent from the others. An example of this would be the following scenario:

Let $A = \{1, 2, 3\}$, $B = \{4, 5, 6\}$, and $C = \{2, 4, 6\}$

\[ F = \{A, B, C\} = \{\{1, 2, 3\}, \{4, 5, 6\}, \{2, 4, 6\}\} \]

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Family of Sets. https://jacobzelko.com/09302022033236-family-sets. September 29 2022.

References:

Discussion:

What Is a Topological Space?

Sat, 17 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

What Is a Topological Space?

Date: September 17 2022

Summary: A brief understanding of my knowledge on topological spaces

Keywords: ##summary #algebraic #topology #space #topological #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Reading Motivation
2. Topological Spaces
3. Examples of Topologies on a Set $X$
  1. Trivial (Indiscrete) Topology on $X$
  2. General Topology on $X$
  3. The Discrete Topology of $X$
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I wanted to learn more about algebraic topology so as to further understand the notion of cross products. Cross products are albeit a simple mechanism but I was curious to see the notion of them pop up so much. Much more so seeing the idea propagate to topologies which sparked my interested about topologies.

Topological Spaces

A topological space, to my understanding is a kind of embellished set. Embellished in the sense that there exists an underlying set wherein a topology enriches the set. In short, a topology, $\tau$, on a nonempty set $X$ is a collection of subsets of $X$ that also belong to $\tau$. These subsets are referred to as "open sets" where:

\[ \emptyset \]

and $X$ are open. Also can be defined as $\emptyset, X \in \tau$

Union of any number of open sets within $\tau$ also belong to $\tau$
Intersection of a defined number of open sets in $\tau$ also belong to $\tau$

If these conditions are met, then a topology $\tau$ on $X$ is often written as $(X, \tau)$. If $\tau$ or the fact that we are working with topologies is obvious, then one can refer to $(X, \tau)$ as the "topology on $X$".

NOTE: If there are two sets, $A = \{1, 2, 3\}$ and $B = \{2, 3, 4\}$, the notation $A \backslash B$ (read as "A drop B") is equal to $A \backslash B = \{1\}$. This notation is shorthand for $A \cap B^{c}$. In this case, this set would be known as a closed set under $(X, \tau)$.

Examples of Topologies on a Set $X$

Trivial (Indiscrete) Topology on $X$

If $X = \{1, 2, 3, 4\}$ then the trivial topology is $\tau = \{\{\}, \{1, 2, 3, 4\}\} = \{\emptyset, X\}\}$.

NOTE: In this case, $\tau = \{\emptyset, X\}\}$ is referred to as a "family". A "family" is a set of subsets for a given set (in this case, $X$).

General Topology on $X$

If $X = \{1, 2, 3, 4\}$ then the family $\tau = \{\emptyset, \{2\}, \{1, 2\}, \{2, 3\}, \{1, 2, 3\}, X\}$ forms another topology.

NOTE: "General" in the header for this section just refers to possible subsets that can be formed out of the set $X$ to form another topology. Additional subsets could be $\{1\}, \{1, 4\}$, etc.

The Discrete Topology of $X$

If $x = \{1, 2, 3, 4\}$, the discrete topology of $X$ is the power set of $X$ which is the family $\tau = \wp(X)$. $\wp(X)$ consists of all possible subsets of $X$.

A simple way of calculating the power set of this topology is with the Julia snippet:

using Combinatorics℘ = powerset
X = [1, 2, 3, 4]
℘(X) |> collect

Which would give the following possible subsets of X:

[],
[1],
[2],
[3],
[4],
[1, 2],
[1, 3],
[1, 4],
[2, 3],
[2, 4],
[3, 4],
[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 4],
[1, 3, 4],
[2, 3, 4],
[1, 2, 3, 4]

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. What Is a Topological Space?. https://jacobzelko.com/09172022051900-what-topology. September 17 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Coproducts (Disjoint Unions)

Fri, 16 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Coproducts (Disjoint Unions)

Date: September 16 2022

Summary: Exploration on the disjoint union of sets.

Keywords: ##summary #category #theory #sets #union #archive

Bibliography

David Spivak, Category Theory for Scientists, Old Version. 2013.

1. Reading Motivation
2. Disjoint Union of Sets Intuition
3. Coproduct of a Set and Itself
4. Set Theory Definition
5. Notation in Category Theory
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

To learn and understand the concept of coproducts within the context of category theory. Also, I came across the symbolic notation for what disjoint unions are and wanted to understand what the notation fully meant.

Disjoint Union of Sets Intuition

To build an intuitive sense of what a disjoint union is, consider the following.

Given two sets, $X = \{a, b, c, d\}$, $Y = \{1, 2, 3\}$, the coproduct of these sets would be:

\[ X \coprod Y := \{a, b, c, d, 1, 2, 3\} \]

This also is referred to as the "disjoint union of sets". Although, it is important to note that an important aspect of this notation above is missing from the coproduct which will be explained in the section on a coproduct of a set and itself.

Coproduct of a Set and Itself

If given set $X = \{a, b, c, d\}$, the coproduct of $X$ and itself would look like this:

\[ X \coprod X \cong \{i_{1}a, i_{1}b, i_{1}c, i_{1}d, i_{2}a, i_{2}b, i_{2}c, i_{2}d\} \]

In this case, $i_{1}$ and $i_{2}$ are unique inclusion functions that map each set in a coproduct to its disjoint union. The inclusion functions in my opinion, act as a sort of metadata that helps one know where elements of a disjoint union comes from.

NOTE: The author, David Spivak, in Category Theory for the Sciences presented the above notation for a coproduct of $X$ and itself. Personally, I found this notation very confusing and feel the formal set theory definition explained in the section on the set theory definition of a coproduct to be more useful here. If we revisited the operation $X \coprod X$, I am more inclined to write the problem and solution as follows:

Let $X = X_{1} = X_{2}$, the value of $X_{1} \coprod X_{2}$ is: $X_{1} \coprod X_{2} \cong \{(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 1), (d, 1), (a, 2), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 4)\}$

Set Theory Definition

This big honking formulation is the formal set theoretic definition of a coproduct:

\[ \bigsqcup_{i \in I} A_{i} = \bigcup_{i \in I} \{(x, i): x \in A_{i}\} \]

What this says loosely is that given a family of sets $A$ indexed by the index set $I$, a coproduct is a set that enumerates every element in $A_{i}$ with its associated set. Referencing the example on a coproduct of a set and itself:

Given: $X = \{a, b, c, d\}$

Let $X = X_{1} = X_{2}$, the value of $X_{1} \coprod X_{2}$ is:

\[ X_{1} \coprod X_{2} \cong \{(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 1), (d, 1), (a, 2), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 4)\} \]

The coproduct is a set which enumerates every element in both set $X_{1}$ and $X_{2}$ as a tuple with an associated index to say what set this element originated from (i.e. $(a, 1)$ is the same $a$ from set $X_{1}$).

Notation in Category Theory

It is important to make clear that in category theory, these two syntaxes are seen:

\[ \coprod_{i \in I} X_{i} \]

and $\bigsqcup_{i \in I} X_{i}$

Both refer to a disjoint union and both can be read as "the disjoint union of the family of sets $X_{i}$ indexed by the index set, $I$." Here, when we say "family of sets", they can either be a "set of subsets over a set $X$" or a "set of sets $X$ where each set could be independent of one another."

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Coproducts (Disjoint Unions). https://jacobzelko.com/09162022162129-coproducts-disjoints. September 16 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Introduction To Streaming for Data Scientists

Fri, 09 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Introduction To Streaming for Data Scientists

Date: September 9 2022

Summary: What is streaming data and how it can be used in data science and other applications

Keywords: #archive #data #streaming

Bibliography

C. Huyen, “Introduction to streaming for data scientists,” Aug. 03, 2022. https://huyenchip.com//2022/08/03/stream-processing-for-data-scientists.html (accessed Sep. 02, 2022).

1. Reading Motivation
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

Streaming is an immensely important concept I have consistently found. I came to appreciate the concept more deeply by interacting with TranscodingStreams.jl to parse terabytes worth of data out of memory in a JSON format (shudders at the thought of this).

Once your data is stored in files, data lakes, or data warehouses, it becomes historical data.

Streaming data refers to data that is still flowing through a system, e.g. moving from one microservice to another.

Historical data is often processed in batch jobs — jobs that are kicked off periodically. For example, once a day, you might want to kick off a batch job to generate recommendations for all users. When data is processed in batch jobs, we refer to it as batch processing.

Stream processing refers to doing computation on streaming data.

Batch prediction means periodically generating predictions offline, before prediction requests arise.

Online prediction means generating predictions on-demand, after prediction requests arise.

One of the features you might use is the average price of all the items this user has looked at in the last 30 minutes. This is an online feature – it needs to be computed on online data (as opposed to being pre-computed on historical data)

This “easy” way is stateless, which means that each computation is independent from the previous one.

Stateful stream processing can avoid redundancy, hence faster and cheaper.

Batch monitoring means running a script to compute the metrics you care about periodically (like once a day), usually on data in warehouses like S3, BigQuery, Snowflake, etc. Batch monitoring is slow. You first have to wait for data to arrive at warehouses, then wait for the script to run.

Real-time monitoring means computing metrics on data as it arrives, allowing you to get insights into your systems in (near) real-time.

Continual learning refers to the ability to update your models whenever needed and to deploy this update quickly.

Overtime, we’ll have a series of ordered updates, which is called a log. Each update is an example of an event. Logs are append-only. You can only append the new events to your existing log. You can’t overwrite previous events.

There are two components of a streaming system: the realtime transport and the computation engine. The real-time transport, which are basically distributed logs.

The computation engine performs computation (e.g. joining, aggregation, filtering, etc.) on the data being transported.

The total price and the count constitute the internal state of the stream processing job.

The saved internal state is called a checkpoint (or savepoint), and this job can resume from any checkpoint.

The computed average price value, if saved, will become a materialized view of the feature average price.

Or you can update it using only the new information (e.g. using the latest materialized average price + the prices of updated items). The latter is called incremental materialized.

Point-in-time correctness refers to a system’s ability to accurately perform a computation as it would’ve happened at any time in the past. Point-in-time correctness means no data leakage.

Retroactively processing historical data using a different logic is also called backfilling.

With batch backfilling, you can apply the new logic (e.g. new feature definition) to a table in the past.

With stream backfilling, you can apply the new logic to the log in a given period of time in the past, e.g. apply it to the log on June 10, 2022.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Introduction To Streaming for Data Scientists. https://jacobzelko.com/09092022205654-streaming-data-scientists. September 9 2022.

References:

Discussion:

COVID-19 and the other pandemic: populations made vulnerable by systemic inequity

Thu, 08 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

COVID-19 and the other pandemic: populations made vulnerable by systemic inequity

Date: September 8 2022

Summary: How the COVID pandemic lead to highlighting vulnerable populations introduced by systemic inequity for healthcare

Keywords: ##bibliography #inequity #minorities #covid19 #pandemic #vulnerable #archive

Bibliography

D. M. Gray, A. Anyane-Yeboa, S. Balzora, R. B. Issaka, and F. P. May, "COVID-19 and the other pandemic: populations made vulnerable by systemic inequity," Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol, vol. 17, no. 9, pp. 520–522, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.1038/s41575-020-0330-8.

1. Reading Motivation
2. Vulnerable Population Examples
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I examined this paper to learn more about vulnerabilities posed to minority and vulnerable populations. I focused less on pandemic-related risks and more on examples of problems posed to minority populations.

Vulnerable Population Examples

Intersectional vulnerable populations (e.g. those living with disability, poverty conditions, or racial minority, etc.) face even more perils to their already vulnerable state.

African Americans have the highest mortality from colorectal cancer. (3, 4)

- Diagnosed at younger ages 
- Intersectionally, African Americans who are poor, uninsured, and/or geographically isolated are less likely to get screening tests 
	- Less likely to receive treatment for advanced disease

Hispanics or Latinos are disproportionately affected by SDOH factors. (5)

- Have highest incidence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Native American reservations lack low number of ICU hospital beds. (8)

- Indian Health Services only had limited ability to help COVID-19 patients.

Minorities are over-represented as and in: (9)

- Essential workers 
- Poor and overcrowded housing
- Could be impossible to adhere to COVID-19 safety policies

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. COVID-19 and the other pandemic: populations made vulnerable by systemic inequity. https://jacobzelko.com/09082022132448-covid-systemic-inequity. September 8 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Spatial exploration of the CDC's Social Vulnerability Index and heat-related health outcomes in Georgia

Thu, 08 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Spatial exploration of the CDC's Social Vulnerability Index and heat-related health outcomes in Georgia

Date: September 8 2022

Summary: A small article on how the CDC's social vulnerability index was associated with heat-related morbidities in Georgia

Keywords: ##bibliography #cdc #social #vulnerability #index #georgia #death #health #archive

Bibliography

E. A. Lehnert, "Spatial exploration of the CDC’s Social Vulnerability Index and heat-related health outcomes in Georgia," International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, p. 7, 2020.

1. Reading Motivation
2. Definitions
3. Social Vulnerability Index Calculations
4. Digression on Black Belt
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I read this paper to find out more about the social vulnerability index and how it can be used in the state of Georgia. It wasn't particularly insightful although the discussion about calculating SVI for GA and its definition about social vulnerability was helpful.

Definitions

Social vulnerability is defined as the extent to which a community contains social characteristics that may affect the community's overall resilience (18). It is affected by - Situational factors: Employment, Education, Income, Housing Type (19, 20) - Intrinsic factors: Age, Race, and Ethnicity (19, 21)

Social Vulnerability Index Calculations

See Note for Details

Digression on Black Belt

I never knew the term for this but historically, where African Americans were heavily enslaved is called the "Black Belt". The authors found that high SVI and heat-related deaths were often found in these historical communities [32].

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Spatial exploration of the CDC's Social Vulnerability Index and heat-related health outcomes in Georgia. https://jacobzelko.com/09082022132106-spatial-vulnerability-outcomes. September 8 2022.

References:

Discussion:

LGBTQ Populations: Psychologically Vulnerable Communities in the COVID-19 Pandemic

Thu, 08 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

LGBTQ Populations: Psychologically Vulnerable Communities in the COVID-19 Pandemic

Date: September 8 2022

Summary: A brief report on the risks encountered by LGBTQ communities as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic

Keywords: ##bibliography #lgbtq #pandemic #covid19 #mental #health #vulnerable #archive

Bibliography

J. P. Salerno, N. D. Williams, and K. A. Gattamorta, "LGBTQ Populations: Psychologically Vulnerable Communities in the COVID-19 Pandemic," p. 4.

1. Reading Motivation
2. LGBTQ Risks
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I examined this paper at the time to find out more about vulnerabilities posed to LGBTQ populations. I was less interested in the pandemic's potential impacts on these populations although this paper did have many thoughts on the topic.

LGBTQ Risks

The LGBTQ community faces significant mental health disparities compared to heterosexual, cisgender populations (Plöderl & Tremblay, 2015; Price-Feeney, Green, & Dorison, 2020; Russell & Fish, 2016)

People of color within the LGBTQ community are at greater risk for social inequality (Baams, Wilson, & Russell, 2019; Conron & Wilson, 2019; Movement Advancement Project & SAGE, 2017; Morton et al., 2018; Whittington et al., 2020).

Intersectional LGBTQ youth populations (e.g. stratified by race, ethnicity, immigration status, poverty conditions, etc.) generally engage more often with school mental health services (Ali et al., 2019; Golberstein, Wen, & Miller, 2020).

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. LGBTQ Populations: Psychologically Vulnerable Communities in the COVID-19 Pandemic. https://jacobzelko.com/09082022132720-lgbtq-psychologically-vulnerable. September 8 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Social Vulnerability Index

Thu, 08 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Social Vulnerability Index

Date: September 8 2022

Summary: An overview of the metric, Social Vulnerability Index, created by the Centers for Disease Control

Keywords: ##summary #metric #social #vulnerability #index #svi #cdc #archive

Bibliography

B. E. Flanagan, E. W. Gregory, E. J. Hallisey, J. L. Heitgerd, and B. Lewis, "A social vulnerability index for disaster management," Journal of homeland security and emergency management, vol. 8, no. 1, 2011.

How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

SVI data can be retrieved from: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/placeandhealth/svi/index.html

For at least the 2000 version of SVI, the metric is derived from summed percentile rankings at census tract level of fifteen U.S. Census variables shown in the following table:

SVI Theme	Variables Included
1. Socioeconomic Status	% Below Poverty Level
	% Unemployed
	Per Capita Income
	% Age 25 or Older with No High School
2. Household Composition &	Diploma
Disability	% Age 65 or Older
	% Age 17 or Younger
3. Minority Status & Language	% Single Parent Household
	% Age 5 or Older Speak English "Less than
4. Housing & Transportation	Well"
	% Multi-Unit Structures
	% Mobile Homes
	% Crowding (More people than rooms)
	% Households without a Vehicle
	% In Institutionalized Group Quarters

These variables were determined from an extensive literature review [19,20,23,29, 30]. <!–TODO: Get references from this file–> The SVI is normalized between 0 and 1 with 0 representing low social vulnerability and 1 representing high social vulnerability.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Social Vulnerability Index. https://jacobzelko.com/09082022144933-social-vulnerability-index. September 8 2022.

References:

Discussion:

A Systematic Review of the Health of Vulnerable Populations within US Rural Societies

Thu, 08 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

A Systematic Review of the Health of Vulnerable Populations within US Rural Societies

Date: September 8 2022

Summary: An overview and summary of vulnerable populations that are particular to rural US

Keywords: ##bibliography #review #vulnerable #populations #rural #us #archive

Bibliography

K. M. Gonzalez, "A Systematic Review of the Health of Vulnerable Populations within US Rural Societies," OJRNHC, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 112–147, 2018, doi: 10.14574/ojrnhc.v18i1.507.

1. Reading Movation
2. What Is Vulnerability?
3. Barriers Often Encountered in Rural Healthcare Settings
4. Vulnerabilities Most Often Studied in Rural Health Literature
5. Recommendations for Future Research
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Movation

I wanted to read this paper to get more a sense for vulnerable populations. Although I was less interested in the specific applications to rural communities, I found the discussion around rural vulnerabilities very interesting as well as clarification around definitions.

What Is Vulnerability?

Vulnerable populations are those subgroups that are at risk for experiencing elevated healthcare disparities. (De Chesnay & Anderson, 2016; Shi & Stevens, 2010).

A potential model to assess vulnerability is that proposed by (Grabovschi et al., 2013) where it can be visaulized as a right triangle with the horizontal axis representing healthcare accessibility and quality; vertical axis represents healthcare needs; hypotenuse is the level of vulnerability.

Barriers Often Encountered in Rural Healthcare Settings

Health disparities continue to be a severe problem across US populations. (Crosby, Wendel, Vanderpool, & Casey, 2012; Penman-Aguilar et al., 2016) Trends in inequalities emerge for patients seeking healthcare across multiple factors such as race, socioeconomic status, and provider accessibility.

Rural dwellers tend to lack insurance compared to urban settings (Barker, Londeree, McBride, Kemper, & Mueller, 2013; Soni, Hendryx, & Simon, 2017)
Many rural dwellers travel more than 30 minutes for healthcare - it is especially exacerbated where public transportation is lacking and severe poverty exists (Warren & Smalley, 2014, p. xiii)

Vulnerabilities Most Often Studied in Rural Health Literature

46 articles were studied for this systematic review. Population sizes ranged from 10 to 30,874 people. For quantitative studies, populations ranged from 28 to 30,874 participants.

Aspects of Vulnerability Considered	Included papers, n (%)
Low socioeconomic status	22(47.8%)
Racial/Ethnic Minority	18(39.1%)
Chronic physical or mental illness	11(23.9%)
Low level of education	11(23.9%)
Old age	8(17.4%)
Youth	8(17.4%)
Residence in medically underserved area	6(13.0%)
Disability	5(10.9%)
Pregnancy	4(8.7%)
Smoking	3(6.5%)
Substance Abuse	3(6.5%)

Recommendations for Future Research

Only one article calculated a power analysis (Komro et al., 2015).

Power analysis are used in quantitative research to limit error between hypothesis and findings.

There was observed an overrelianceon descriptive correlational designs that impeded adequate theory testing. Studies should incorporate theories and theoretical applications relevant to rural populations.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. A Systematic Review of the Health of Vulnerable Populations within US Rural Societies. https://jacobzelko.com/09082022131551-systematic-rural-review. September 8 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Setting Up Julia LSP for Neovim

Wed, 31 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Setting Up Julia LSP for Neovim

Date: August 31 2022

Summary: An explanation of how to setup the Julia LSP for Neovim

Keywords: ##summary #neovim #julia #programming #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. General Guide
How To Cite
References
Discussion:

General Guide

This is from Fredrik Ekre at the Julia Discourse with some minimal changes and notes from me:

LanguageServer is somewhat slow to start so it is very useful to use a custom sysimage using PackageCompiler to reduce this time. On my machine I get the first response after 20+ seconds, but with a custom sysimage I can execute LS commands instantaneously.

Here is my setup:

Install Mason.nvim or nvim-lspconfig and install julials (it may also be called something like Julia Language Server Protocol).
Modify init.vim or init.lua to use a custom Julia executable (if it exists):

require'lspconfig'.julials.setup{
    on_new_config = function(new_config, _)
        local julia = vim.fn.expand("~/.julia/environments/nvim-lspconfig/bin/julia")
        if require'lspconfig'.util.path.is_file(julia) then
	    vim.notify("Hello!")
            new_config.cmd[1] = julia
        end
    end
}

(OPTIONAL) If you use Packer to manage your vim setup, run PackerCompile.

NOTE: If you notice, there is a small line named vim.notify("Hello!"). This is to test that julials is engaged when accessing a Julia file - you can check that it is engaged by writing :messages in vim. You should see "Hello!" appear. This line can then safely be removed.

Create the nvim-lspconfig Julia environment by running the following in your shell:

julia --project=~/.julia/environments/nvim-lspconfig -e 'using Pkg; Pkg.add("LanguageServer")'

And then navigate to the directory at ~.julia/environment/nvim-lspconfig.

Copy the following makefile (courtesy of Fredrik Ekre) the nvim-lspconfig directory with the name makefile:

# MIT License. Copyright (c) 2021 Fredrik Ekre
#
# This Makefile can be used to build a custom Julia system image for LanguageServer.jl to
# use with neovims built in LSP support. An up-to date version of this Makefile can be found
# at https://github.com/fredrikekre/.dotfiles/blob/master/.julia/environments/nvim-lspconfig/Makefile
#
# Usage instructions:
#
#   1. Update the neovim configuration to use a custom julia executable. If you use
#      nvim-lspconfig (recommended) you can modify the setup call to the following:
#
#          require("lspconfig").julials.setup({
#              on_new_config = function(new_config, _)
#                  local julia = vim.fn.expand("~/.julia/environments/nvim-lspconfig/bin/julia")
#                  if require("lspconfig").util.path.is_file(julia) then
#                      new_config.cmd[1] = julia
#                  end
#              end,
#              -- ...
#          })
#
#   2. Place this Makefile in ~/.julia/environments/nvim-lspconfig (create the directory if
#      it doesn't already exist).
#
#   3. Change directory to ~/.julia/environments/nvim-lspconfig and run `make`. This will
#      start up neovim in a custom project with a julia process that recods compiler
#      statements. Follow the instructions in the opened source file, and then exit neovim.
#
#   4. Upon exiting neovim PackageCompiler.jl will compile a custom system image which will
#      automatically be used whenever you work on Julia projects in neovim.
#
# Update instructions:
#
#  To update the system image (e.g. when upgrading Julia or upgrading LanguageServer.jl or
#  it's dependencies) run the following commands from the
#  ~/.julia/environments/nvim-lspconfig directory:
#
#      julia --project=. -e 'using Pkg; Pkg.update()'
#      makeJULIA=$(shell which julia)
JULIA_PROJECT=
SRCDIR:=$(shell dirname $(abspath $(firstword $(MAKEFILE_LIST))))
ifeq ($(shell uname -s),Linux)
	SYSIMAGE=languageserver.so
else
	SYSIMAGE=languageserver.dylib
endifdefault: $(SYSIMAGE)$(SYSIMAGE): Manifest.toml packagecompiler/Manifest.toml packagecompiler/precompile_statements.jl
	JULIA_LOAD_PATH=${PWD}:${PWD}/packagecompiler:@stdlib ${JULIA} -e 'using PackageCompiler; PackageCompiler.create_sysimage(:LanguageServer, sysimage_path="$(SYSIMAGE)", precompile_statements_file="packagecompiler/precompile_statements.jl")'Manifest.toml: Project.toml
	JULIA_LOAD_PATH=${PWD}/Project.toml:@stdlib ${JULIA} -e 'using Pkg; Pkg.instantiate()'Project.toml:
	JULIA_LOAD_PATH=${PWD}/Project.toml:@stdlib ${JULIA} -e 'using Pkg; Pkg.add("LanguageServer")'packagecompiler/Manifest.toml: packagecompiler/Project.toml
	JULIA_LOAD_PATH=${PWD}/packagecompiler/Project.toml:@stdlib ${JULIA} -e 'using Pkg; Pkg.instantiate()'packagecompiler/Project.toml:
	mkdir -p packagecompiler
	JULIA_LOAD_PATH=${PWD}/packagecompiler/Project.toml:@stdlib ${JULIA} -e 'using Pkg; Pkg.add("PackageCompiler")'packagecompiler/precompile_statements.jl: Manifest.toml bin/julia
	TMPDIR=$(shell mktemp -d) && \
	cd $${TMPDIR} && \
	JULIA_LOAD_PATH=: ${JULIA} -e 'using Pkg; Pkg.generate("Example")' 2> /dev/null && \
	cd Example && \
	JULIA_LOAD_PATH=$${PWD}:@stdlib ${JULIA} -e 'using Pkg; Pkg.add(["JSON", "fzf_jll", "Random", "Zlib_jll"])' 2> /dev/null && \
	JULIA_LOAD_PATH=$${PWD}:@stdlib ${JULIA} -e 'using Pkg; Pkg.precompile()' 2> /dev/null && \
	echo "$$PACKAGE_CONTENT" > src/Example.jl && \
	JULIA_TRACE_COMPILE=1 nvim src/Example.jl && \ # NOTE: You may need to check that neovim is correctly on your path
	rm -rf $${TMPDIR}bin/julia:
	mkdir -p bin
	echo "$$JULIA_SHIM" > $@
	chmod +x $@clean:
	rm -rf $(SYSIMAGE) packagecompiler bin.PHONY: clean defaultexport JULIA_SHIM
define JULIA_SHIM
#!/bin/bash
JULIA=${JULIA}
if [[ $${JULIA_TRACE_COMPILE} = "1" ]]; then
    exec $${JULIA} --trace-compile=${PWD}/packagecompiler/precompile_statements.jl "$$@"
elif [[ -f ${PWD}/$(SYSIMAGE) ]]; then
    exec $${JULIA} --sysimage=${PWD}/$(SYSIMAGE) "$$@"
else
    exec $${JULIA} "$$@"
fi
endefexport PACKAGE_CONTENT
define PACKAGE_CONTENT
# This file is opened in neovim with a LanguageServer.jl process that records Julia
# compilation statements for creating a custom sysimage.
#
# This file has a bunch of linter errors which will exercise the linter and record
# statements for that. When the diagnostic messages corresponding to those errors show up in
# the buffer the language server should be ready to accept other commands (note: this may
# take a while -- be patient). Here are some suggestions for various LSP functionality that
# can be exercised (your regular keybindings should work):
#
#  - :lua vim.lsp.buf.hover()
#  - :lua vim.lsp.buf.definition()
#  - :lua vim.lsp.buf.references()
#  - :lua vim.lsp.buf.rename()
#  - :lua vim.lsp.buf.formatting()
#  - :lua vim.lsp.buf.formatting_sync()
#  - :lua vim.lsp.buf.code_action()
#  - Tab completion (if you have set this up using LSP)
#  - ...
#
# When you are finished, simply exit neovim and PackageCompiler.jl will use all the recorded
# statements to create a custom sysimage. This sysimage will be used for the language server
# process in the future, and should result in almost instant response.module Exampleimport JSON
import fzf_jll
using Random
using Zlib_jllfunction hello(who, notused)
    println("hello", who)
    shuffle([1, 2, 3])
   shoffle([1, 2, 3])
    fzzf = fzf_jll.fzzf()
    fzf = fzf_jll.fzf(1)
    JSON.print(stdout, Dict("hello" => [1, 2, 3]), 2, 123)
    JSON.print(stdout, Dict("hello" => [1, 2, 3]))
    hi(who)
    return Zlib_jll.libz
endfunction world(s)
    if s == nothing
      hello(s)
  else
      hello(s)
  end
    x = [1, 2, 3]
    for i in 1:length(x)
        println(x[i])
    end
endend # module
endef

Run make. This will set up a dummy project and launch nvim with julia recording everything that is compiled. Wait until the LanguageServer responds (there are a bunch of things in this dummy project that will result in warnings) and then run some LanguageServer commands, for example ::lua vim.lsp.buf.hover() to fetch documentation).
Quit vim.
PackageCompiler will now build a custom languageserver.so sysimage.
Enjoy the Julia LSP!

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Setting Up Julia LSP for Neovim. https://jacobzelko.com/08312022162228-julia-lsp-setup. August 31 2022.

References

Discussion:

Definitions Concerning Terrorism

Sun, 28 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Definitions Concerning Terrorism

Date: August 28 2022

Summary: A summary note focused on definitions concerning terrorism and

Keywords: ##summary #definition #terrorism #radicalization #fear #violence #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. What Is Terrorism?
2. Goals of Terrorism
3. What Is Violent Radicalization
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

What Is Terrorism?

Terrorism is defined as the use of violence and intimidation in the pursuit of political aims. Terrorism is not an individual experience; it is violence at a population level and worthy of attention in fields focusing on socioecological understanding of social processes and human behavior Social Determinants of Health, Violent Radicalization, and Terrorism: A Public Health Perspective. Often the threat of violence – is enough to accomplish an objective (this holds true often for terrorist groups as well).

Goals of Terrorism

Instill a population level of:

Fear
Uncertainty
Vulnerability

As well as:

Undermine health and well-being of populations
Not preventing avoidable morbidity and mortality - Yehuda R, Hyman SE. The impact of terrorism on brain, and behavior: what we know and what we need to know. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30:1773–1780.

What Is Violent Radicalization

Violent radicalization the process of adopting or promoting an ideologically based violence to advance political, religious, or social change via an extremist belief system Social Determinants of Health, Violent Radicalization, and Terrorism: A Public Health Perspective.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Definitions Concerning Terrorism. https://jacobzelko.com/08282022133230-definitions-around-terrorism. August 28 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Social Determinants Surrounding Terrorism

Sun, 28 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Social Determinants Surrounding Terrorism

Date: August 28 2022

Summary: Working note on the social determinants of terrorist activity in a vein inspired by the notion of social determinants of health

Keywords: #social #determinants #terrorism #health #violence #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Definitions
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Definitions

Social cohesion is the connectedness and solidarity in populations. This includes the absence of social conflict and presence of social bonds.27 A measure used to quantify social cohesion is trust. Social Determinants of Health, Violent Radicalization, and Terrorism: A Public Health Perspective

Social capital are the features of social structures that are resources for community members to create action.27 Social capital acts as a safety net for individuals to protect against losses like physical health, mental health, and life satisfaction.31Social Determinants of Health, Violent Radicalization, and Terrorism: A Public Health Perspective (See Features of Social Capital for further insight on what social capital is and its importance)

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Social Determinants Surrounding Terrorism. https://jacobzelko.com/08282022134930-social-determinants-terrorism. August 28 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Overview of What Is Jihad

Sun, 28 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Overview of What Is Jihad

Date: August 28 2022

Summary: Short summary on what is jihad and its various understandings

Keywords: ##summary #jihad #islam #holy #struggle #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Jihad is a major teaching in Islam and is often confused in modern discussion of contemporary Islam. It is often simplistically translated in English to mean, "holy war". However, it has a much deeper meaning relating to the notion of struggling for the sake of God.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Overview of What Is Jihad. https://jacobzelko.com/08282022142544-jihad-definition. August 28 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Features of Social Capital

Sun, 28 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Features of Social Capital

Date: August 28 2022

Summary: An overview on what social capital is and how it affects

Keywords: ##summary #social #capital #risk #terrorism #violence #crime #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Varying levels of social capital in a population is an important determinant of health in children, adolescents, adults, and aging populations.28,33 Social Determinants of Health, Violent Radicalization, and Terrorism: A Public Health Perspective

Low levels of social capital, can be a risk factors for population health such as:

Prevention of crime.33,35
High risk behaviors such as spread of suicidal ideation36 and alcohol and other drug use among adolescents.37

Social capital brings people together in at least two ways:

Bring alike people together to create bonding networks
Bring people not alike together to create bridging networks. 29,30

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Features of Social Capital. https://jacobzelko.com/08282022135955-social-capital. August 28 2022.

References:

Discussion:

The Origins Of Terrorism: Cross-country Estimates Of Socio-economic Determinants Of Terrorism

Sun, 28 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

The Origins Of Terrorism: Cross-country Estimates Of Socio-economic Determinants Of Terrorism

Date: August 28 2022

Summary: Brief summary of paper examining socioeconomic impacts or determinants of terroristic ideology

Keywords: ##bibliography #terrorism #socioeconomics #determinants #archive

Bibliography

A. Freytag, J. J. Krüger, D. Meierrieks, and F. Schneider, "The origins of terrorism: Cross-country estimates of socio-economic determinants of terrorism," European Journal of Political Economy, vol. 27, pp. S5–S16, Dec. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2011.06.009.

How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

I personally only found this paper mildly interesting. In my research in terrorism, I was not as interested in this sort of research literature as it was too granular for what I was investigating – which was a broad level of investigation as an initial pass.

Their biggest takeaway from their study was that they found contrary to mainstream literature now, there is a socioeconomic impact to account for when researching terrorism. This especially extends the poor socioeconomic conditions individuals find themselves in such as insufficient welfare policies, economic discrimination, and low levels of economic openness. (e.g., Burgoon, 2006; Blomberg and Hess, 2008; Krieger and Meierrieks, 2010; Caruso and Schneider, 2011) Additionally, to fight terrorism, they surmised that improving socioeconomic conditions could in fact counter terrorist growth.

<!–TODO: Add citations–>

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. The Origins Of Terrorism: Cross-country Estimates Of Socio-economic Determinants Of Terrorism. https://jacobzelko.com/08232022220628-origins-terrorism. August 28 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Why Do People Become Terrorists? A Prosecutor's Experiences

Tue, 23 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Why Do People Become Terrorists? A Prosecutor's Experiences

Date: August 23 2022

Summary: A autobiographical sketch on why a person might become a terrorist

Keywords: #archive #terrorist #motivation #violence

Bibliography

A. Spataro, "Why Do People Become Terrorists?: A Prosecutor’s Experiences," Journal of International Criminal Justice, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 507–524, Jul. 2008, doi: 10.1093/jicj/mqn033.

How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Interesting comment in this paper about how convicted terrorists will harken back their cause to injustice suffered by those they perceive as having a special kinship with. Also, ideological motives do come up but the similarity piece appears more important than holding the same values.

Motivations for becoming a terrorist:

Search for community belonging
Attempt to reaffirm identity
Search for prestige through "strong" leaders of communities 6

A powerful quote from this paper is that, "Modern Islamic terrorists are made, not born." There are routes from which would-be extremists come from:

Could start that something is wrong and needs to be corrected
It is perceived that the problem cannot be solved with means provided by a society's political or legal framework
Accepting an ideology or developing a worldview that breaks down the barriers that stop most from committing acts of violence to be overcome.

The moment when individuals "can conceive of... acts of appalling brutality..." (Burke, supranote 2, at 247-248).

H. Shmuel Erlich, 'Reflections on the Terrorist Mind, in Varvin and Volkan, ibid., chap. 9, states how the psyche of a terrorist's mind 'is not marked by gross deviance', and 'the attempt to depict "the Terrorist" as a deranged, emotionally deprived and impoverished, mentally ill person is misleading and basically wrong' (at 148).

NOTE: This is a fascinating note that many terrorists are not apparently "crazy" or terribly psychologically deranged but rather is misleading

In the relationship that inevitably takes shape with the collaborators with justice, I have at times been struck by the astonishment and gratitude with which they welcomed even simple gestures of courtesy or human interest on my part, which were evidently interpreted as signs, almost as proof, of the existence of a personal relationship of acceptance and sympathy. It is something they marvel at and do not seem to have expected. This means that the Public Prosecutor does not become just the collaborator's reference point in the course of the criminal proceedings awaiting him, which are often long and complex. The Public Prosecutor also becomes the addressee of a trust that projects beyond the judicial occasion and concerns the future of that person.

One final note that was highlighted by this collection of perspectives was the fact that terrorists who collaborate on behalf of justice enjoy the apparent friendship that can be struck up with the public prosecutor. To me, it highlights the importance of meeting the social needs of these terrorists or would-be terrorists as a means to prevent terrorism.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Why Do People Become Terrorists? A Prosecutor's Experiences. https://jacobzelko.com/08232022220130-people-become-terrorists. August 23 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Social Determinants of Health, Violent Radicalization, and Terrorism: A Public Health Perspective

Fri, 19 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Social Determinants of Health, Violent Radicalization, and Terrorism: A Public Health Perspective

Date: August 19 2022

Summary: A review on how terrorism intersects with the social determinants of health

Keywords: ##bibliography #terrorism #social #determinants #health #cohesion #social #isolation #archive

Bibliography

H. E. Alcalá, M. Z. Sharif, and G. Samari, "Social Determinants of Health, Violent Radicalization, and Terrorism: A Public Health Perspective," Health Equity, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 87–95, Aug. 2017, doi: 10.1089/heq.2016.0016.

1. Public Health Approach to Terrorism
2. Shortcomings of Addressing Terrorism from a Public Health Perspective
3. Factors Leading to Extremism
4. Studying Gang Violence as a Proxy for Terrorist Groups
5. Positive Approaches to Mitigate Radicalization
6. Problems with Whiteness and Terrorism Classifications
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

This paper was probably the best paper I have read on the subject of terrorism research and how it intersects with public health and the social determinants of health. It provided a comprehensive background on what terrorism and radicalism are as well as some very useful public health terminology introducing the concept of social cohesion and social capital. Furthermore, it got at the concept of how examining terrorism and gang violence from a public health perspective is very understudied and underutilized when exploring this space.

Public Health Approach to Terrorism

2.6% of terrorism deaths happen in the West. 72% belong to:

Syria
Pakistan
Iraq
Nigeria
Afghanistan - Institute for Economics and Peace. Global Terrorism Index. New York, NY. 2015.

Terrorism associated with negative mental health outcomes in:

depression
anxiety
posttraumatic stress disorder

Amongst others - Rousseau C, Jamil U, Bhui K, et al. Consequences of 9/11 and the war on terror on children’s and young adult’s mental health: a systematic review of the past 10 years. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2015;20:173–193.

Shortcomings of Addressing Terrorism from a Public Health Perspective

Historically public health has focused on:

Preparedness strategies
Containment of terrorist fallout

What has been missing in this space is examining:

Social determinants of terrorism
Determinants for violent radicalization
Risk factors for terrorism

Factors Leading to Extremism

A case study from the United Kingdom shows that violent radicalization is an outcome of a complex interaction among social, political, cultural, historical, and interpersonal factors.7

Discrimination can be thought of as a "comorbidity" of social isolation and exclusionary behavior. One form of systematic discrimination is immigration policy as it directly contributes to social segregation.9 Feelings of marginalization have been shown to lead to decreased self-worth and, in turn, increase radicalization.57 Those discriminated against could then fall easily to extremist influence and ideology as a result of weakening social cohesion.52

Studying Gang Violence as a Proxy for Terrorist Groups

A proxy to study terrorism is to study gang violence

At the individual level, gangs and terrorist organizations appeal to individuals who are psychologically deviant, have limited access to socioeconomic opportunities, or are marginalized members of society.39–44 In fact, terrorist groups attract a range of unstable individuals.45

NOTE: This seems to contradict the paper Why Do People Become Terrorists as it notes that instead, it was observed how many of these people who are not fully psychologically deviant but rather of clear mind. Furthermore, in my attempt to reconcile such different observations, I would posit that rather, both explanations and comments are valid but that "unstable individuals" seem to conflate a kind of negative aspect to a person whereas the linked paper avoids the notion of unstable persons and instead explains how most of these people are of clear opinion.

Goals generally exclusive to gangs:

Symbolic ends
Looser structure
Less temporary collaborations
Shorter memberships
Gang occupies physical space.46

The main difference between gangs and terrorist groups is that gangs are often not politically motivated.47

Positive Approaches to Mitigate Radicalization

Dutch police actively sought to integrate individuals from Syria by connecting them with a psychiatrist or mentor. Then, they provided assistance to find housing or means to return to school. To round out this reintegration process, they went even further to provide "whatever they needed to fully integrate back into society."67

This approach, believes that to fight terrorism through policing and/or "profiling" will create real or perceived discrimination, humiliation, and/or marginalization. Other papers have shown this to be an accurate assessment.

<!–TODO: Add citations to note–>

Problems with Whiteness and Terrorism Classifications

Muslim Americans who come from the Middle East are often classified as "White" by categories set forth by the Office of Management and Budget. However, this is in complete opposition to the fact that a large proportion of Muslim Americans do not identify as "White". 15 An implicit assumption and implicit problem is that people labeled "White" are assumed to be "racially neutral."15

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Social Determinants of Health, Violent Radicalization, and Terrorism: A Public Health Perspective. https://jacobzelko.com/08192022115354-health-terrorism-factors. August 19 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Assessing Phenotype Definitions for Algorithmic Fairness

Fri, 12 Aug 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Assessing Phenotype Definitions for Algorithmic Fairness

Date: August 12 2022

Summary: A possible workflow for assessing fairness in the context of observational health studies

Keywords: ##bibliography #phenotype #fairness #metrics #observational #health ##research #archive

Bibliography

T. Y. Sun, S. Bhave, J. Altosaar, and N. Elhadad, “Assessing Phenotype Definitions for Algorithmic Fairness,” arXiv:2203.05174 [cs, q-bio], Mar. 2022, Accessed: Apr. 29, 2022. [Online]. Available: http://arxiv.org/abs/2203.05174

1. Reading Motivation
2. Purpose of Paper
3. Definitions
4. Types of Biases Found in Phenotyping
5. Common Fairness Metrics
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I wanted to read this article as it was highly recommended to me by my friend, Jaan Altosaar, one of the coauthors of this piece. I was very interested in the methods they used and the approach they took to address fairness in phenotypes as although I had heard about discrepancies in phenotypes, this was a bit of a watershed paper to read in my mind exposing how phenotyping can be so skewed. Really fantastic paper and will be returning to it.

Purpose of Paper

Biases introduced at phenotype level can risk exacerbating existing health disparities by influencing clinical guidelines and public policy is what this paper argues

Definitions

Phenotyping: Identifying a set of patients with a particular disease

Phenotype Definitions: the process of sorting patients based on a disease they have into cohorts. This phenotyping to create definitions is done to learn more about a specific condition such as: - Epidemiological queries (e.g., quantifying incidence of disease overtime) (Dubberke et al., 2012) - Estimating and predicting risk (Kaelber et al., 2012) - Comparing effectiveness (Suchard et al., 2019)

The basis of demographic parity is the federal fourfths rule, which states that a selection rate for any race, sex, or ethnic group which is less than fourfths of the rate of the group with the highest rate will generally be regarded by the Federal enforcement agencies as evidence of adverse impact

Types of Biases Found in Phenotyping

Diagnosis Bias: a bias that prevents or causes delays to a disease diagnosis for a population due to differences in how that disease may present for that particular population. Example: - Heart attack literature finds that men complain of chest pain more frequently - Woman are likely to complain of other forms of pain. - Phenotype definition for heart attack with chest pain as the core symptom may not capture women (Coventry et al., 2011).

Treatment bias: a bias that prevents or causes delays to a treatment for population groups. Example: - VA black patients less likely to receive cardio-protective drugs than white patients (Mehta et al., 2010

Access to Care Bias: biases that are systemic issues preventing patients from accessing healthcare options. Example: - Phenotype definition that requires a diagnosis to occur in outpatient settings could underrepresent patients.

Common Fairness Metrics

Demographic Parity: difference in proportion for each protected class that receives the positive and negative outcome. Also referred to as "independence" or "statistical parity".

\[ P_0(\hat{Y}=\hat{y})=P_1(\hat{Y}=\hat{y}) \forall \hat{y} \in\{0,1\} \]

Equality of Opportunity: when true positive rates of a model are equal across demographics

\[ P_0(\hat{Y}=1 \mid Y=1)=P_1(\hat{Y}=1 \mid Y=1) \]

Predictive Rate Parity: when probability of true labels given the predicted label is the same across classes

\[ P_0(Y=1 \mid \hat{Y}=1)=P_1(Y=1 \mid \hat{Y}=1) \]

and

\[ P_0(Y=0 \mid \hat{Y}=0)=P_1(Y=0 \mid \hat{Y}=0) \]

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Assessing Phenotype Definitions for Algorithmic Fairness. https://jacobzelko.com/08122022205622-assessing-phenotype-fairness. August 12 2022.

References:

Discussion:

What is

Sun, 22 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

What is

Date: May 22 2022

Summary: An overview of what normal science is according to Thomas Kuhn.

Keywords: #normal #science #characteristics #work #archive

Bibliography

T. S. Kuhn and I. Hacking, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Fourth edition. Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2012.

1. What Is "Normal Science"?
  1. What Are the Characteristics of Normal Science?
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

What Is "Normal Science"?

According to Kuhn, normal science, is research based on past scientific accomplishments that are considered the foundation for that area of investigation. Generally, this is the area where most scientists spend their time. The research done in normal science can be theoretical or empirical.

In the book, Kuhn referred to this as "mop-up work" and that this mopping up or "filling out" of science is what most scientists do. Although language such as "mop-up" work can make one think that Kuhn was being pejorative to these so-called "scut scientists", he did not intend it so. In later versions of this book, he made a response to this point of confusion and clarified that this work still is fascinating and crucial in many ways to the advancement of science.

What Are the Characteristics of Normal Science?

An important aspect of normal science is that it does not engage with or seek out anything new. The invention of theories, development of new phenomena - anything abnormal - is not part of normal science. Novelty is abhorrent and antithetical to normal science.

Aside from this fundamental aspect of normal science, Kuhn posited that there are three general areas of research in normal science. He emphasized that they do not always hold or are always discrete from one another:

Investigating questions around the fundamental facts found in a specific domain.
Questions that are predicted and expected to have answers existing within an already existing research domain.
Further articulating the fundamental facts held in a given domain.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. What is. https://jacobzelko.com/05222022044134-normal-science. May 22 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man

Sun, 22 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man

Date: May 22 2022

Summary: An overview on this excellent book on media philosophy and media's intersection with society and its affects on people and community as well as eerie premonitions for the future of a technological age.

Keywords: ##book #review #media #extensions #anxiety #society #medium #global #village #technology #archive

Bibliography

M. McLuhan, "Understanding Media the Extensions of Man." London and New York, Oct. 1994.

1. Reading Motivation
2. The Action and the Reaction
3. The Age of Anxiety
4. The Medium Is the Message
5. Characteristics of a Medium
6. Types of Mediums
  1. Hot Mediums
7. Creation of New Systems
8. Surviving an Impossible World
9. Media as Extensions of Tyranny and Labor
10. On Photography and Travel
11. How Media Changes Our Habits
12. Ads as Reflection of Actual Society
13. Media and Society
14. Comedy
15. Games as a Media
16. Media and the Nature of Work
17. The Nature of Radio as a Media
18. Television's Idiosyncrasies as a Media
19. Miscellany
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Reading Motivation

I had long heard about this author ever since high school. I recall one day picking up a book of his at my community college's library and being both interested and overwhelmed by it. I have never much read philosophy so this was my first time encountering such a book and at the time, I found it impenetrable beyond my preliminary glances. It wasn't until this year I ventured on a project to read his magnum opus, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, a nearly 400 page endeavor that spanned nearly 6 months.

I am sure for anyone more expert, they could've more readily finished such a book. But, although I found MacLuhan's ideas very fascinating as well as largely approachable, I could only truly approach and appreciate them if I read his work in very small chunks. So, I worked slowly through this book and have not regretted doing so a single moment. This book was utterly life changing and has wide implications for the modern day despite this book being written nearly 70 years ago.

The Action and the Reaction

MacLuhan puts forth an initial thought of the "action and the reaction". He mentions how in past ages, actions (particularly the development of novel technologies like of a better plow or even printing press) could be executed with relatively minimal care. Not "minimal" in the sense of a lack of importance but that the impact of an action rippled much more slowly through the world. The action could be followed by a well-thought out or better informed reaction by those the action was affecting.

However, today, "the action and the reaction occur almost [simultaneously]". The action and reaction to a technology used to be slow but now is instantly leaving behind those incapable of adapting to the novelty. As MacLuhan observed, this simultaneity prevents an acclimation period for persons as much of humanity continues to "think in the old, fragmented space and time patterns of the pre-electric age." I intentionally invoke the word "simultaneity" here as I think this concept of "action and reaction" finds analogy within Einstein's notion of Relativity of Simultaneity TODO: Create note on Relativity of Simultaneity using this link: https://sites.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS0410/chapters/Specialrelativityrelsim/index.html and this one: https://sites.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/Goodies/relofsim/index.html TODO: Create separate note on analogy between Relativity of Simultaneity and Information Dissemination

In the past, MacLuhan posits that we used technology to create "extensions" that "extended" parts of our bodies – like a knife extending our teeth or a firearm extending our fists. Not so in the electric era. Rather, we have "extended our central nervous system itself in a global embrace, abolishing both space and time[.]" MacLuhan believes that we are rapidly approaching the point in society and technology wherein, "the creative process of knowing will be collectively and corporately extended to the whole of human society. [... Where] it is no longer possible to adopt the aloof and dissociated role of the literate Westerner."

Everyone's business is now everyone's business.

The Age of Anxiety

One idea that I think MacLuhan fantastically captured and explained much better than modern pundits and observers have done is how our age is one of anxiety. This has been bemoaned in many ways from multiple different groups – be they political, scientific or spiritual – but I have always found the notions being discussed to be buried too much in a specific domain or emerging trend. MacLuhan instead abstracts this concept to a much higher level that gives it, in my opinion, a much better resonance of the true problems of our electric age.

As he says, "If the nineteenth century was the age of the editorial chair, ours is the century of the psychiatrist's couch." Something that was hard to grasp at first was the careful delineation he made between a "chair" and a "couch". For him, the "chair" as an extension of man is a mechanical replacement of one's spine – a reinforcement to help the "sitter" maintain their position (on an argument or view). Instead, the modern "couch" becomes an icon that offers no such support but a sort of endless collapse into ease that thwarts "the temptation to express private points of view and obviates the need to rationalize events."

"This is the Age of Anxiety for the reason of the electric implosion that compels commitment and participation, quite regardless of any "point of view"," is a line of thinking that links back this notion of the "Age of Anxiety" to his original idea on the "action and the reaction". As man in an electric society can no longer be an observer, the "point of view" (which I understand as one's own beliefs and thoughts about the world) one may have becomes an obstacle to a global society. Using the means of a psychiatrist's couch, we can become numbed to even our own beliefs and mental facilities. Instead, the current zeitgeist is to allow our "point of view" fall congruent to the will of the masses and governing authorities.

And here MacLuhan utters his famous line: "the globe is no more than a village," to illustrate how every problem, every action, every perspective, is now standing and staring at you and how you will act. "It is this implosive factor that alters the position of [various] groups. They can no longer be contained, in the political sense of limited association. They are now involved in our lives, as we in theirs, thanks to the electric media." We are now obligated to some involvement regardless of one exact point of view.

And therein lies the core problem of this Age of Anxiety: conflicting views in the electric age lead to adversity. Because what if we say, do, or think something that goes askew the prevailing global "point of view"? At best, one could be described as "quaint" or "old-fashioned" perhaps; at worst, one could be excommunicated from the village.

The Medium Is the Message

I think I will have to read more of MacLuhan's work someday to better understand the concept of "medium" but this is my very loose understanding. As MacLuhan cryptically says, "the medium is the message," forming the key motif of this entire book. He builds upon earlier language around "extensions" to explain that the message conveyed by a medium consists of the "personal and social consequences" of a medium (i.e. an extension) that result from the scale introduced into our lives by each extension. In short, the message itself is the consequences of a medium that affect reality we inhabit.

In compliment to the "message" of a medium, the "'content' of any medium is always another medium." When I first read this, I was rather confused as it seemed in contradiction to my earlier understanding of what the message of a medium is. However, what MacLuhan was more referring to as "content" is not again so much the actual "information" in the message but more the "method" of its communication such as the following line of examples:

graph LRSpeech --ContentOf--> Writing

Using MacLuhan's notion of the "content" of a medium, we see that "speech" is fundamentally the content of the medium, "writing".

graph LRWriting --ContentOf--> Print

Then "writing" is the content of the medium of "print".

graph LRPrint --ContentOf--> Telegraph

Finally, "print" is the content of the medium of the "telegraph". MacLuhan did point out that you could go even further from the root of "speech" to muscle contractions in one's throat, to thought, etc. However, I, as well as MacLuhan, found that to be a bit inane and I find it reasonable to call speech a "fundamental" content. It is a bit confusing how MacLuhan uses "content" in this scenario but to summarize my understanding of his central treatise on what he means by "the medium is the message":

"[The] 'message' of any medium [...] is the change [...] that it introduces into human affairs."
"[T]he medium [...] shapes and controls [...] human association and action."
The "content" of any medium is another medium

Even though the delineation between what is a "medium", what is "content", and what is a "message" is thorny to parse from MacLuhan's writing (at least for me), I think this separation is wholly necessary. In fact, I think this delineation is what is missing from modern discourse on new mediums (ergo technologies). In culmination of this initial discussion on mediums, I think the most important takeaway for me about mediums is this quote: "it is only too typical that the 'content' of any medium blinds us to the character of the medium." We can limit ourselves by only thinking within existing "content" of a given "medium" rather than viewing the medium wholly.

In short, new mediums enable entirely novel realities. Letters were once highly cherished not only because of their "content" (i.e. the medium of writing and hand-writing) and their "information" (what did the letter say) but also due to the constrained medium of a letter. Letters could take days or weeks to be delivered and would have to encapsulate much within their "information". Now with the use of instant messaging, we have lost "content" (i.e. hand-writing) in this medium but it introduces an entirely new reality of interacting with the "content". The "information" conveyed by the "content" of instant messaging can be trivialized much more easily due to the instantaneous nature of the "medium" of instant messaging.

Characteristics of a Medium

MacLuhan goes onto further explain the characteristics of a medium. "General David Sarnoff made this statement: "We are too prone to make technological instruments the scapegoats for the sins of those who wield them. The products of modern science are not in themselves good or bad; it is the way they are used that determines their value." That is the voice of the current somnambulism. Suppose we were to say, "Apple pie is in itself neither good nor bad; it is the way it is used that determines its value." Or, "The smallpox virus is in itself neither good nor bad; it is the way it is used that determines its value." Again, "Firearms are in themselves neither good nor bad; it is the way they are used that determines their value." That is, if the slugs reach the right people firearms are good." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 13)

"any medium has the power of imposing its own assumption on the unwary" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 17)

"greatest aid to this end is simply in knowing that the spell can occur immediately upon contact" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 17)

Mediums are virulent. They can infect, inspire, and alter oneself all at once.

"literate man is quite inclined to see others who cannot conform as somewhat pathetic" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 18)

"testers assume that uniform and continuous habits are a sign of intelligence, thus eliminating the ear man and the tactile man" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 18)

Could it be said that these could be geniuses, those who do not conform?

The private point of view according to McLuhan is all at once an illusion as we become who we behold

How media affect or leach into a community should be the underlying area of study in examining the impacts of a media.

"we are losing all confidence in our right to assign guilt" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 22)

Assigning guilt is lost in the electric area. Calling anything wrong or crazy is impossible.

Types of Mediums

Hot Mediums

"A hot medium is one that extends one single sense in "high definition." High definition is the state of being well filled with data." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 30)

"A photograph is, visually, "high definition." A cartoon is "low definition," simply because very little visual information is provided. Telephone is a cool medium. or one of low definition, because the ear is given a meager amount of information" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 30)

"Hot media are, therefore, low in participation, and cool media are high in participation or completion by the audience" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 31)

"For myth is the instant vision of a complex process that ordinarily extends over a long period. Myth is contraction or implosion of any process, and the instant speed of electricity confers the mythic dimension on ordinary industrial and social" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 33)

"We are certainly coming within conceivable range of a world automatically controlled to the point where we could say, "Six hours less radio in Indonesia next week or there will be a great falling off in literary attention." Or, "We can ! program twenty more hours of TV in South Africa next week to cool down the tribal temperature raised by radio last week." Whole cultures could now be programmed to keep their emotional climate stable in the same way that we have begun to know something about maintaining equilibrium in the commercial economies of the world" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 36) media based influence and control of ideas

Creation of New Systems

"One of the most common causes of breaks in any system is the cross-fertilization with another system, such as happened to print with the steam press, or with radio and movies (that yielded the talkies)." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 49)

"Except for light, all other media come in pairs, with one acting as the "content" of the other, obscuring the operation of both" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 63)

McLuhan says that the artist is always the first person to make the intersection of mediums powerful. I wonder if that is so.

"The moment of the meeting of media is a moment of freedom and release from the ordinary trance and numbness imposed by them on our senses." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 67)

"That is what is meant when we say that we daily know more and more about man. We mean that we can translate more and more of ourselves into other forms of expression that exceed ourselves. Man is a form of expression who is traditionally expected to repeat himself and to echo the praise of his Creator" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 69)

I really like this idea that man itself is a type of expression. Meaning, translation is infinite.

He makes an interesting observation about people who are illiterate to this age. They afford technology a sort of tribal magic much like how inexperienced investors expect to make money by throwing funds into stock.

Missing the whole for the parts.

"The artist is the man in any field, scientific or humanistic, who grasps the implications of his actions and of new knowledge in his own time" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 78)

He goes into great detail about how the artists are the ones able to react to new technologies. Is is them who can express the groans of the current reality.

Surviving an Impossible World

"it is obvious that numbness is the result of any prolonged terror" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 39)

"The price of eternal vigilance is indifference." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 39)

Autoamputation is an interesting thought. I was unsure what was meant at first but realize it is the process by which to externalize or remove an internal irritant through some kind of self extension.

The suicidal autoamputation is a more heinous variety where all experiences are external separate to the body. Makes me think of VR and Meta. He points out that this happens because we are not equipped to handle such extreme serialization.

A "closure" is the idea that a person conforms perceptually to a media they are immersed in - like Psalm 113. Finally, more of an explanation on what closures are. They are the worlds media make for themselves.

"We have to numb our central nervous system when it is extended and exposed, or we will die" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 57)

"Thus the age of anxiety and of electric media is also the age of the unconscious and of apathy." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 58)

"Our private and corporate lives have become information processes just because we have put our central nervous systems outside us in electric technology." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 63)

"The mark of our time is its revulsion against imposed patterns. We are suddenly eager to have things and people declare their beings totally." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 8)

Is it wise that we have this revulsion against patterns? Rather, I find it a possible societal regression of a kind. Why do we say in hubris that we know now better to live than in any time of human history? Is man, unrestrained, really man or some primal, base thing?

Media as Extensions of Tyranny and Labor

This is an interesting thought that as the means of communication are improved, so are the means of tyranny

"A speed-up in communications always enables a central authority to extend its operations to more distant margins" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 109)

Clothing can be thought of as an extension as it concerns one's ability interact with the environment.

Light enables a whole new world or worlds and abolishes the notion of night and day.

"Time is money," and money is the store of other people's time and effort" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 152)

Money is the ultimate store of collective human endeavors and the translator of work from priest to prostitute.

"Automation, which is electronic, does not represent physical work so much as programmed knowledge" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 154)

"Although the medium is the message, the controls go beyond programming. The restraints are always directed to the "content," which is always another medium. The content of the press is literary statement, as the content of the book is speech, and the content of the movie is the novel. So the effects of radio are quite independent of its programming" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 337)

Money is not a closed system

On Photography and Travel

"Time can be defeated, as it were, by reversal of its characteristics if only it be speeded up enough" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 170)

"The age of Jung and Freud is, above all, the age of the photograph, the age of the full gamut of self-critical attitudes" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 218)

I love this critique of photos and travel. Basically, as time goes on the value of those hobbies or objects dull our senses or sense of wonder.

"contrived, prefabricated." He is not concerned to find out why the photograph has done this to us. But in the same way intelligent people in the past always deplored the way in which the book had become a substitute for inquiry, conversation, and reflection, and never troubled to reflect on the nature of the printed book. The book reader has always tended to be passive, because that is the best way to read. Today, the traveler has become passive" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 219)

How Media Changes Our Habits

"Difficulty of access does not confer adequacy of perception, though it may involve an object in an aura of pseudo-values, as with a gem, a movie star, or an old master" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 220)

"This now brings us to the factual core of the "pseudoevent," a label applied to the new media, in general, because of their power to give new patterns to our lives by acceleration of older patterns" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 220)

"All media exist to invest our lives with artificial perception and arbitrary values" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 220)

"The car has become the carapace, the protective and aggressive shell, of urban and suburban man" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 248)

Ads as Reflection of Actual Society

"Ads are news. What is wrong with them is that they are always good news" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 231)

"The steady trend in advertising is to manifest the product as an integral part of large social purposes and processes. With very large budgets the commercial artists have tended to develop the ad into an icon, and icons are not specialist fragments or aspects but unified and compressed images of complex kind. They focus a large region of experience in tiny compass" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 250)

He has a bullseye view of ads in my opinion - its how the milk ads can appear so important to society.

"there are the new massive iconic ads with their compressed images that include producer and consumer, seller and society in a single image" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 251)

"Ads seem to work on the very advanced principle that a small pellet or pattern in a noisy, redundant barrage of repetition will gradually assert itself. Ads push the principle of noise all the way to the plateau of persuasion. They are quite in accord with the procedures of brain-washing" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 251)

"Ads are not meant for conscious consumption. They are intended as subliminal pills for the subconscious in order to exercise an hypnotic spell" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 252)

Media and Society

"Any community that wants to expedite and maximize the exchange of goods and services has simply got to homogenize its social life" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 253)

This line makes me think of of Kuhn's idea of incommensurability.

"our intensely individualist and fragmented Western world, "booze" is a social bond and a means of festive involvement. By contrast, in closely knit tribal society "booze" is destructive of all social pattern and is even used as a means to mystical experience" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 258)

Interesting observation on the role of alcohol in communities.

"Just as we now try to control atom-bomb fallout, so we will one day try to control media fallout. Education will become recognized as civil defense against media fallout" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 337)

Comedy

"We think of humor as a mark of sanity for a good reason: in fun and play we recover the integral person, who in the workaday world or in professional life can use only a small sector of his being" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 259)

Beautiful commentary on comedy as a sort of lifeline to the self in a way.

Games as a Media

"A game is a machine that can get into action only if the players consent to become puppets for a time" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 263)

"Perhaps there is, just for this reason, a desperate need for games in a highly specialized industrial culture, since they are the only form of art accessible to many minds" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 266)

"A moral point of view too often serves as a substitute for understanding in technological matters. That games are extensions, not of our private but of our social selves, and that they are media of communication, should now be plain. If, finally, we ask, "Are games mass media?" the answer has to be "Yes." Games are situations contrived to permit simultaneous participation of many people in some significant pattern of their own corporate lives." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 270)

Media and the Nature of Work

"From this time on, the mere specialist in any field was doomed to the sterility and inanity that echoed an archaic form of the departing mechanical age" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 275)

Really makes me think of Willy Loman from Death of a Salesman and my own grandfather.

"Therefore, no new idea ever starts from within a big operation. It must assail the organization from outside, through some small but competing organization" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 277)

This reminds me of the verse that says how no student can be above his teacher.

"Northcote Parkinson's law that "work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion" is precisely the zany dynamic provided by the telephone" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 290)

"the main "work to be done" is actually the movement of information. The mere interrelating of people by selected information is now the principal source of wealth in the electric age" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 291)

It is an interesting remark on labor saving devices. Rather than freeing up time, you end up doing more labor and work than before. It brought down the barrier of entry for menial tasks so all could do them.

"A mechanized world is always in the process of getting ready to live, and to this end it brings to bear the most appalling pomp of skill and method and resourcefulness" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 321)

"The world eagerly lined up to buy canned dreams" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 322)

The Nature of Radio as a Media

"To the blind, all things are unexpected" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 294)

"The telephone: speech without walls. The phonograph: music hall without walls. The photograph: museum without walls. The electric light: space without walls" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 313)

"What the Orient saw in a Hollywood movie was a world in which all the ordinary people had cars and electric stoves and refrigerators. So the Oriental now regards himself as an ordinary person who has been deprived of the ordinary man's birthright" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 325)

"If a government monopolizes the radio, then by mere repetition and byRADIO 325 exclusion of conflicting points of view it can determine the opinions of the population" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 328)

"This is inherent in the very nature of this medium, with its power to turn the psyche and society into a single echo chamber" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 331)

Television's Idiosyncrasies as a Media

"TV is a medium that rejects the sharp personality and favors the presentation of processes rather than of products" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 341)

"grammars of newspaper, or radio, or of film, but who look askew and askance at all non-book media. The simplest question about any psychic aspect, even of the book medium, throws these people into a panic of uncertainty. Vehemence of projection of a single isolated attitude they mistake for moral vigilance. Once these censors became aware that in all cases "the medium is the message" or the basic source of effects, they would turn to suppression of media as such, instead of seeking "content" control. Their current assumption that content or programming is the factor that influences outlook and action is derived from the book medium, with its sharp cleavage between form and content" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 347)

"The failure of the sex-integration programs has provided the theme of much of the literature and psychoanalysis of the twentieth century. Race integration, undertaken on the basis of visual uniformity, is an extension of the same cultural strategy of literate man, for whom differences always seem to need eradication, both in sex and in race, and in space and in time" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 349)

"Print gave intensity and uniform precision, where before there had been a diffuse texture. Print brought in the taste for exact measurement and repeatability that we now associate with science and mathematics" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 350)

"The same new preference for depth participation has also prompted in the young a strong drive toward religious experience with rich liturgical overtones" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 354)

"anybody whose appearance strongly declares his role and status in life is wrong for TV Anybody who looks as if he might be a teacher, a doctor, a businessman, or any of a dozen other things all at the same time is right for TV" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 365)

"The TV child expects involvement and doesn't want a specialist job in the future. He does want a role and a deep commitment to his society" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 370)

"The TV child cannot see ahead because he wants involvement, and he cannot accept a fragmentary and merely visualized goal or destiny in learning or in life" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 370)

Miscellany

"Since our new electric technology is not an extension of our bodies but of our central nervous systems, we now see all technology, including language, as a means of processing experience, a means of storing and speeding information. And in such a situation all technology can plausibly be regarded as weapons" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 379)

"Dewart in his Crintanity adn Revolution, wehn he points tothe obsolescence fo the fragemnted balance of power techniques. As an instrument of policy, modern war has come to mean "the existence and end of one society tot he esclusion of another" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 381)

"Any subject taken in depth at once relates to other subjects. Arithmetic in grade three or nine, when taught in terms of number theory, symbolic logic, and cultural history, ceases to be mere practice in problems. Continued in their present patterns of fragmented unrelation, our school curricula will insure a citizenry unable to understand the cybernated world in which they live" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 383)

"Men are suddenly nomadic gatherers of knowledge, nomadic as never before, informed as never before, free from fragmentary specialism as never before –but also involved in the total social process as never before; since with electricity we extend our central nervous system globally, instantly interrelating every human experience" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 395)

"Tradition, in a word, is the sense of the total past as now" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 333)

"Everybody experiences far more than he understands" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 351)

"Before the huddle of the city, there was the food-gathering phase of man the hunter, even as men have now in the" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 378)

"electric age returned psychically and socially to the nomad state. Now, however, it is called information-gathering and data-processing" (McLuhan, 1994, p. 379)

"As Selye deals with the total environmental situation in his "stress" theory of disease, so the latest approach to media study considers not only the "content" but the medium and the cultural matrix within which the particular medium operates." (McLuhan, 1994, p. 13) How fascinating! McLuhan knew of the stress theory of disease. I wonder how he knew that? I find it so fascinating the analogy McLuhan is making. It seems as though McLuhan proposes to say that the medium is an organ which interplay’s with Selye's theory. Rather than contradicting or separate from it, it subsists within and intertwined with this theory. In short, McLuhan seems to say that whereas Selye took an environmental approach to disease, McLuhan is taking a holistic view to mediums in a person's life

Selye's work preceded the work of Sir Michael Marmot in creating the Social Determinants of Health. Plus he was starting with the idea of metastatic load.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. https://jacobzelko.com/05222022225241-understanding-media-extensions. May 22 2022.

References:

Discussion:

On the Non-Linearity of Science

Sun, 22 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

On the Non-Linearity of Science

Date: May 22 2022

Summary: The radical view that Thomas Kuhn introduced that science itself is not moving to any specific truth but rather that the scientific organ continues to move forward in a very heap-like fashion.

Keywords: #view #paradigm #progress #science #history #textbooks #nonlinear #archive

Bibliography

T. S. Kuhn and I. Hacking, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Fourth edition. Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2012.

1. On the Non-Linearity of Science
How To Cite
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On the Non-Linearity of Science

One thing out of this book is that I very much appreciated and agreed with Kuhn's notion that science is not linear nor is it necessarily the result of a universal truth being uncovered. Rather, it is the confluence of emerging theories that evolve and find they can fit with other theories or paradigms. These newly combined theories then come together to possibly overturn or change the understanding of currently practiced science.

This fallacious notion of linear knowledge going to a particular truth about the world is based in part on science historians and textbook makers. As textbooks are designed to assist students in learning as much material as possible, the teacher with the textbook maker chooses to formulate a textbook around one particular area of knowledge thereby giving a sense of progress to a domain's particular truth. As science does not deal with all possible experiments but only those which are doable according to an existing paradigm, so too a textbook must be very judicious in what it presents to a student from its paradigm.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. On the Non-Linearity of Science. https://jacobzelko.com/05222022050357-non-linearity-science. May 22 2022.

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Discussion:

Invoking New Paradigms

Sun, 22 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Invoking New Paradigms

Date: May 22 2022

Summary: The costs of invoking a new paradigm and the lead-up to developing one

Keywords: #new #paradigm #adoption #faith #archive

Bibliography

T. S. Kuhn and I. Hacking, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Fourth edition. Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2012.

1. Invoking New Paradigms on Faith
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Invoking New Paradigms on Faith

A problem inherit to the development of new paradigms is that to adopt these new paradigms is most certainly an act of faith. Early adherents to a new paradigm must stand against the onslaught of problems that were solved or addressed by a previous paradigm. They must simply have hope and faith that this new paradigm they have adopted will succeed in the areas where the previous paradigm failed. As Kuhn said:

"A decision of that kind can only be made on faith"

Even when this new paradigm is able to successfully surmount longstanding problems, Kuhn says that even still a vast majority of scientists will be apprehensive to adopt this paradigm. Why? Kuhn observed that two conditions must be met for further adoption:

The new paradigm must solve outstanding problems that the prior paradigm could not.
Much of the problem solving tools from previous paradigms should still be able to be used in this new paradigm.

In this sense, there is a type of verification or vetting of a new paradigm – an analogy to natural selection as Kuhn pointed out. For a new paradigm to be successful, not only must it address all problems hitherto encountered by prior paradigms, but be able to solve outstanding problems prior paradigms could not and the barrier to adopting this new paradigm must be minimal. "No theory ever solves all [...] puzzles with which it is confronted at a given time; nor are the solutions already achieved often perfect," is a fitting bookend from Kuhn to remember when encountering new paradigms.

One small final footnote on new paradigms is an observation by Kuhn: the invention of a paradigm most generally comes from someone very young or new to the field where a paradigm exists that they are trying to change.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Invoking New Paradigms. https://jacobzelko.com/05222022045931-new-paradigms. May 22 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Scientific Revolutions

Sun, 22 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Scientific Revolutions

Date: May 22 2022

Summary: The careful nuance that Kuhn used when he created the phrase 'Scientific Revolution'

Keywords: ##outline #revolution #scientific #shift #paradigm #archive

Bibliography

T. S. Kuhn and I. Hacking, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Fourth edition. Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2012.

1. "Scientific Revolutions" and the Term "Revolution"
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"Scientific Revolutions" and the Term "Revolution"

According to Kuhn, these crises are the requirements for a new paradigm to come forth. This leads to extraordinary science as this episode in a paradigm's life is extraordinary that causes a basic shift in how science is even conducted. This period, coined by Kuhn, is called a "Scientific Revolution".

Kuhn was very particular in invoking the term "revolution". He related the phrase "scientific revolution" analogously to a political revolution. In the same way that a political revolution is often fomented when a political body fails to serve adequately the growing body of its populace, so too are the grounds set for a scientific revolution.

Although a paradigm may shift how one does science, the world itself does not change. Rather, the way we view and operate in the world does. For the adoptees of a new paradigm, the adoptee must say something to the effect of "I once understood X to be Y, but I was mistaken" and in doing so admit a form of error in looking at reality.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Scientific Revolutions. https://jacobzelko.com/05222022045723-scientific-revolutions. May 22 2022.

References:

Discussion:

What Are Kuhnian Paradigms?

Sun, 22 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

What Are Kuhnian Paradigms?

Date: May 22 2022

Summary: An overview on what Thomas Kuhn meant by paradigm and how that applies to science.

Keywords: ##outline #science #normal #exemplar #paradigm #characteristics #archive

Bibliography

T. S. Kuhn and I. Hacking, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Fourth edition. Chicago ; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2012.

1. What Was Kuhn's Concept of a Paradigm?
  1. What Are the Characteristics of a Paradigm?
  2. What Are the Benefits of Choosing a Paradigm?
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

What Was Kuhn's Concept of a Paradigm?

Kuhn reintroduced into the modern English lexicon the word, "paradigm". Before his time, the term was rather archaic. A paradigm is the background through which normal science is conducted loosely speaking. Another way of thinking about it is from Discord user heynonnynonnie suggesting that a paradigm is a consensus agreed upon by a group of practitioners of a field.

What Are the Characteristics of a Paradigm?

When he used the word, as Kuhn admitted himself, he overloaded the term to mean quite a number of things. To my understanding, this was my gist of a Kuhnian paradigm in that paradigms generally have two core characteristics:

Unprecedented and can sustain practitioners
Open-ended and with problems to be solved or investigated

Endemic to paradigms is that they posit theories around a domain of research. For a paradigm to be accepted, it must propose a better theory than its predecessors or competitors. Furthermore, a proposed new paradigm is not required to address every fact of the world.

What Are the Benefits of Choosing a Paradigm?

When a domain decides upon a paradigm, avenues of research can now be readily scoped. By presupposing paradigm, questions can now be posed within the context of the paradigm. In accordance to the paradigm, it can be reasonably assumed that solutions can be found.

A benefit that did not immediately appear to me was the insulating properties of a paradigm. An example that Kuhn suggested is that in the social sciences, one has to frame an avenue of research by its importance to society (such as studying racial discrimination, etc.). Problems such as these are notoriously difficult to frame and reach a quorum consensus on due to possibly many competing schools of thought or groups. Instead, by keeping a conversation limited to the adherents of a specific paradigm, a researcher can easily keep moving forward through problems without having to strive against competing schools of thought. Furthermore, the insulating power of a paradigms gives a researcher the ability to solely focus on problems they think they can solve or are solvable.

I will admit, his example of social scientists was at first confusing. But, upon reflection, what made this example make sense is that he later explained his decision to have this as an example due to the fact that there are often many competing paradigms in these areas. This conflict makes progress difficult as many people still argue the fundamentals of these sciences.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. What Are Kuhnian Paradigms?. https://jacobzelko.com/05222022044626-kuhnian-paradigm. May 22 2022.

References:

Discussion:

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

Sun, 15 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

Date: May 15 2022

Summary: A book review of Thomas Kuhn's most famous book that challenged all of the philosophy of science and introduced such concepts as normal science, paradigm shift, why non-scientific fields struggle with similar revolutions, and when one can adopt new paradigms.

Keywords: ##book ##blog ##outline #review #normal #science #paradigm #shift #revolution #science #philosophy #crisis #archive

Bibliography

T. S. Kuhn and I. Hacking, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Fourth edition. Chicago; London: The University of Chicago Press, 2012.

1. Introduction
2. What Is Normal Science?
  1. What Are the Characteristics of Normal Science?
3. What Was Kuhn's Concept of a Paradigm?
  1. What Are the Characteristics of a Paradigm?
  2. What Are the Benefits of Choosing a Paradigm?
4. What Causes the Downfall of a Paradigm?
  1. What Happens When a Paradigm Is in Crisis?
  2. Extraordinary Problems
5. "Scientific Revolutions" and the Term "Revolution"
6. Invoking New Paradigms on Faith
7. On the Non-Linearity of Science
8. Additional Notes
  1. Paradigm Shifts in Other Domains
  2. Non-Kuhnian Revolutions or Domain Transformations
9. Conclusion
How To Cite
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Discussion:

Introduction

This book has had an immense impact in the world of science. From how science is taught to how science is thought about, Kuhn's notions of scientific revolution resonated across nearly all domains of science as well as touching into the arts. The central conceit that Kuhn stated in this book is that the scientific community knows what the world is like. I was recommended this book by my friend, collaborator, and Category Theorist, Professor James P. Fairbanks I can see why it was recommended as it fits in quite nicely to the ensuing philosophical ideas found in Category Theory.

What Is Normal Science?

Note for atomic concept

What Are the Characteristics of Normal Science?

Investigating questions around the fundamental facts found in a specific domain.
Questions that are predicted and expected to have answers existing within an already existing research domain.
Further articulating the fundamental facts held in a given domain.

What Was Kuhn's Concept of a Paradigm?

Note for atomic concept

Kuhn reintroduced into the modern English lexicon the word, "paradigm". Before his time, the term was rather archaic. A paradigm is the background through which normal science is conducted loosely speaking. Another way of thinking about it is from online user heynonnynonnie suggesting that a paradigm is a consensus agreed upon by a group of practitioners of a field.

What Are the Characteristics of a Paradigm?

Unprecedented and can sustain practitioners
Open-ended and with problems to be solved or investigated

What Are the Benefits of Choosing a Paradigm?

What Causes the Downfall of a Paradigm?

Normal science certainly is clear, safe, and predictable. But, what if a scientist finds results that do not fit within a paradigm? What if a result, ruling out all possible errors carried forth by a highly scrupulous researcher, is simply unexplainable - an anomaly against the backdrop of a paradigm? To Kuhn, this marks an important inflection point in adopted paradigms.

Novelty in science only emerges with resistance and difficulty because any, as Kuhn wisely points out, researchers who investigate every anomaly will not get much done. But at some point, these anomalies will continue to accumulate to the point of being unignorable to adherents of a paradigm. A sort of malcontent will arise adherents and to quote Sherlock Holmes, "When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth." And that truth is that an accepted paradigm is no longer sufficient to explain a domain which leads to a period of significant upheaval.

Kuhn characterized the downfall of a paradigm in three generic ways:

Awareness of anomaly
Further recognition of awareness
Contested possible change or challenge to the existing paradigm

What Happens When a Paradigm Is in Crisis?

When the anomalies are fully unconscionable, they are finally acknowledged and, to quote Kuhn:

"Discovery commences with [...] awareness of anomaly"

The previous paradigm prepared an adherent on how to detect an anomaly and in a way, set up its own downfall. At this stage of upheaval, many will attempt to explain or address the anomalous behavior. A new era of discovery in the face of a failing paradigm marks this interstitial period of an outdated paradigm where many speculative and unarticulated theories abound - often at odds with one another in some way. The previous paradigm's rules become hazy and the rules of normal research begin to veer away from its typical, standard process.

Extraordinary Problems

This problem leads normal science into a rather interesting process of science called "extraordinary science". Extraordinary science is an offshoot of normal science that exists when a paradigm is in crisis and to address the paradigm in crisis. It is the science that either repairs, questions, or proves the deficiency of an existing paradigm. Important to note about extraordinary science is that they are never known at the outset of a paradigm but only after advanced normal research in the context of a given paradigm.

"Scientific Revolutions" and the Term "Revolution"

Invoking New Paradigms on Faith

"A decision of that kind can only be made on faith"

The new paradigm must solve outstanding problems that the prior paradigm could not.
Much of the problem solving tools from previous paradigms should still be able to be used in this new paradigm.

On the Non-Linearity of Science

Additional Notes

As I wrap up this review of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, here are some additional notes that didn't quite fit in the overall review. I did still find these pertinent as well as helpful in expanding thoughts about paradigms.

Paradigm Shifts in Other Domains

Outside of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, Kuhn's notion of paradigm shifts do occur. Such a paradigm shift based on Kuhn's writings in an area such as the social sciences could be - and I am making an educated guess here - something akin to the near modern universal condemnation and outlawing of slavery. However, to this end Kuhn posited that unlike the other natural sciences, there still exist competing schools of thought. A visceral modern example is that social scientists also have to defend their choice of a research problem such as examining race in the context of the social determinants of health where other existing schools of thought may fiercely disagree on the validity of such endeavors.

Furthermore, Kuhn gave the great example that, "the man who argues that philosophy [...] has made no progress emphasizes that there are still Aristotelians, not that Aristotelianism has failed to progress," I am in agreement with Kuhn in that it is not that schools of thought outside Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics are not making progress. It is that their are much more fundamental conflicts in these spaces that have yet to be reconciled in sufficient ways.

In an online group discussion, the user ish-i-ness furthered this idea to the arts that, "that in the arts you could even say that there is a desire to discover an aesthetic truth, something that is indisputably, objectively beautiful and thought provoking, rather than just a fad that is only interesting because it’s appeals to a particular, subjective set of preferences." Here, ish-i-ness invokes this notion of aesthetic truth which is associated with Theodore Adorno.

Non-Kuhnian Revolutions or Domain Transformations

In an online group discussion, the user heynonnynonnie, made a great point that non-Kuhnian scientific revolutions happen more frequently than the bigger Kuhnian scientific revolutions (such as the heliocentric versus geocentric theory, etc.). As these are much smaller scale revolutions and do not affect the entirety of science, I call these "domain transformations" as they transform or affect a particular domain's way of operating but not the rest of science as a whole. heynonnynonnie gave the example that the discovery of the DNA structure, though fantastic and a major discovery, provided only pure information that fit within the preexisting paradigms.

Conclusion

I thought this book was well done and also worth this lengthy analysis. It provided context to a lot of ideas that were born from the notions Kuhn coined here. For me, it felt like giving me a bit more of a better foundation to understand better how to operate in domains. Even if this piece is labeled more as a philosophy of science piece, it could easily also be considered a sociological exploration of academia as a whole. I recommend the read, but also, not to take the notions as literally or seriously as possible. Kuhn himself suggested that as he later would get inundated with letters saying that there was a revolution happening because of X - help me. As judicious as Kuhn was in using the term revolution, we too must be careful to recognize when a revolution or paradigm shift is occurring.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. https://jacobzelko.com/05152022174848-structure-revolutions. May 15 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Personal Perspectives on Faith

Sat, 07 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Personal Perspectives on Faith

Date: May 7 2022

Summary: An evolving note on my perspectives on faith as a practicing

Keywords: ##blog #faith #christianity #nicean #creed #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

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A living note on my faith as a Christian

Saying you are a Christian is a loaded statement that colors a spectrum. It brings to mind the halls of a quiet countryside monastery echoing with billowing hymns to outraged shouts of damnation from a pulpit. Saying you are a Christian is strangely all encompassing and hollow simultaneously.

I am a Christian and this blog post is an overview of what I mean by that.

My faith as a Christian affects every aspect of my life as I view God as the Lord of All. I mean "Lord of All" as I view God is omniscient over what exists and what will be. He is the master programmer, the master engineer, the master author, the master – . And as a result of that, I view Him as the one source of knowledge and guidance.

I do not mean that one can learn everything from the Bible. There is no book in the Bible that contains Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion or the Central Limit Theorem. Rather, God communicates a framework through His Word, the Bible, that proves sufficient for every domain and has given us minds and bodies to go and explore His created world.

By God, it is my understanding that there are definite "right" and "wrong" absolutes set forth by a good and righteous God. A result of this I must address is the sad stereotype that unfortunately resonates all too frequently with the truth is the judgemental behavior found in Christian circles. This often has a cultural and historical aspect on how persons view religious institutions - I do not want to discuss that.

Instead, I endeavor practicing the ability to disagree with but accept others. Sadly, this is a skill that is all too-lacking - amongst Christians and beyond. I am perfectly fine discussing generally anything and perhaps most importantly, disagreeing over something. This is a pattern set forth by Jesus from the beginning. Jesus was not sent to those who agreed with him but those who so fiercely opposed Him that they killed Him and still showed compassion for his murderers.

And most important in my faith is my acceptance and trust in the person who is Jesus Christ as the Son of God and Savior of the World. Saving us from what? Ourselves. As I believe there are definite "right" and "wrong" absolutes, it would follow that there are consequences for when we pursue "wrong". And out of those consequences, the most severe is separation from God both now while we are alive and the eternity that our souls find ourselves in upon our demise.

And Jesus is that saving power - that bridge which brings us from that separation to eternity with God. As no one has ever done what is "right" except only Jesus who was both God and a person just like us. I trust that Jesus was killed around 30 CE, He was entombed for three days, resurrected proving that death has no mastery over God, and ascended to the right hand of God. In short, when Jesus said to the grieving sister Martha over the death of her brother, Lazarus:

Jesus said to her,"I am the resurrection and the life. 
The one who believes in me will live, even though they die; 
and whoever lives by believing in me will never die.Do you believe this?"- John 11:25 - 26

To which I respond: "yes". There are multiple omissions of my credo that I have left out here for brevity. I have further included a copy of the Nicaean Creed which I am in full accord with that can help fill in some of those gaps, succinctly:

Nicaean Creed

I believe in one God, the Father almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible.

I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Only Begotten Son of God, born of the Father before all ages. God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father; through him all things were made. For us men and for our salvation he came down from heaven, and by the Holy Spirit was incarnate of the Virgin Mary, and became man.

For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate, he suffered death and was buried, and rose again on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures. He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory

to judge the living and the dead and his kingdom will have no end.

I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son, who with the Father and the Son is adored and glorified, who has spoken through the prophets.

I believe in one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church. I confess one Baptism for the forgiveness of sins and I look forward to the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen.

To leave off, please note: I am not a perfect Christian. No one is or can be. I try to follow God with confident steps; oftentimes, it looks more like a faltering walk. Yet, by the grace of God, I have courage that each day can be better and I can show Christ's love to others not through faux perfection of arrogance but the ordinary efforts of a common man with an extraordinary Savior.

Solil Deo Gloria – To God Alone Be the Glory.

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Personal Perspectives on Faith. https://jacobzelko.com/05072022162026-personal-faith-perspectives. May 7 2022.

References:

Discussion:

Strategies for Evaluating Telehealth

Mon, 02 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Strategies for Evaluating Telehealth

Date: May 2 2022

Summary: Short summary of the SPROUT Telehealth Evaluation and Measurement profile and how it is used

Keywords: ##bibliography #telehealth #sprout #quality #ahrq #who #care #delivery #archive

Bibliography

J. Chuo, M. L. Macy, and S. A. Lorch, “Strategies for Evaluating Telehealth,” Pediatrics, vol. 146, no. 5, p. e20201781, Nov. 2020, doi: 10.1542/peds.2020-1781.

How To Cite
References:
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SPROUT Telehealth Evaluation and Measurement profile [1]

- Utilizes concepts from:
	- National Quality Forum
	- World Health Organization
	- Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
- Reorganizes concepts into 4 clear measurement domains:
	- Health outcomes
	- Health delivery
	- Experience
	- Program implementation and key performance indicators 
- Meant to communicate value to:
	- Patients
	- Providers
	- Health systems
	- Payer

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Strategies for Evaluating Telehealth. https://jacobzelko.com/05022022153220-evaluating-telehealth. May 2 2022.

References:

[1] Macy, Michelle L., Dana Aronson Schinasi, David McSwain, and John Chuo, “SPROUT COVID-19 Measure Framework,” Mar. 24, 2020. https://research.musc.edu/-/sm/research/resources/sctr/f/sprout-telehealth-measurement-framework-for-covid-19.ashx?la=en (accessed May 02, 2022).

Discussion:

Telehealth for global emergencies: Implications for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Mon, 02 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Telehealth for global emergencies: Implications for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Date: May 2 2022

Summary: A great summary of how telehealth interventions can be used both in the COVID-19 pandemic and in general

Keywords: ##bibliography #covid #telehealth #clinician #unwillingness #remittance #archive

Bibliography

A. C. Smith et al., “Telehealth for global emergencies: Implications for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19),” J Telemed Telecare, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 309–313, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1177/1357633X20916567.

1. Systems for Telehealth Interventions
2. Challenges to Telehealth
3. Opportunities for Telehealth
4. Concluding Thoughts
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

An overview of how telehealth interventions could and should be deployed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Really excellent read in my opinion that goes beyond just the COVID-19 pandemic but rather can be taken and applied elsewhere in the telehealth landscape. In particular, their conclusions were interesting as well as their discussion on clinician unwillingness.

Systems for Telehealth Interventions

NATO created Multinational Telemedicine System in 2000
American Telemedicine Association Emergency and Response framework and infrastructure checklist [1]

Challenges to Telehealth

Clinician unwillingness to use telehealth [2]

- Despite high funding in Australia, less than 1% of specialist consultations were telehealth-based [3]
- Clinicians must see telehealth interventions as normal [2]

Renumeration is important but is not the only thing that leads to a successful telehealth intervention
Some care cannot be provided remotely

- Such as lab tests
- Some physical examinations

Opportunities for Telehealth

Advantages of telehealth

- Activate large number of care providers at once
- Enable better triage
- Provide care services when provider locations are unavailable
- Reduce person-to-person contact of disease transmission

Concluding Thoughts

How to realize a successful telehealth intervention alongside medical professionals according to this paper:

Provide telehealth training
Create telehealth accreditation
Ensure proper funding
Structure care models to incorporate telehealth as a core foundation
Communicate to all stakeholders the best mode that they will receive
Incorporate routine evaluation and management of telehealth interventions

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Telehealth for global emergencies: Implications for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). https://jacobzelko.com/05022022171845-telehealth-global-emergencies. May 2 2022.

References:

[1] C. R. Doarn and R. C. Merrell, “Telemedicine and e-health in disaster response,” vol. 20. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 140 Huguenot Street, 3rd Floor New Rochelle, NY 10801 USA, pp. 605–606, 2014.

[2] V. A. Wade, J. A. Eliott, and J. E. Hiller, “Clinician acceptance is the key factor for sustainable telehealth services,” Qual. Health Res., vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 682–694, 2014.

[3] V. Wade, J. Soar, and L. Gray, “Uptake of telehealth services funded by Medicare in Australia,” Aust. Health Rev., vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 528–532, 2014.

Discussion:

Telehealth

Mon, 02 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Telehealth

Date: May 2 2022

Summary: Exhaustive landscape analysis looking into telehealth opportunities and challenges

Keywords: ##bibliography #telehealth #cpt #quality #multistate #licensing #archive

Bibliography

R. Tuckson, M. Edmunds, and M. Hodgkins, “Telehealth,” New England Journal of Medicine, Oct. 2017. Accessed: Apr. 29, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJMsr1503323?articleTools=true

1. Definitions
2. Challenges in Telehealth
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

A literature survey of telehealth insights.

Definitions

Telehealth

- Interchangeably used with telemedicine
- Transferring medical information between sites via telecommunications to improve patient health [1]

Challenges in Telehealth

Current Procedural Terminology Codes

- Get in the way currently of how individuals get paid for telehealth
- CPT Editorial panel working on this circa 2015

Interstate licensing and care provision

- Federation of State Medical Boards created the Interstate Medical Licensure Compact
	- Ease multistate licensing [2]
	- Not all states involved at the time of publication

Quality of Care

- National Quality Forum developing telehealth framework
	- Telehealth Framework To Support Measure Development 2016 - 2017
		- Developed to identify existing and potential telehealth metrics

How To Cite

Zelko, Jacob. Telehealth. https://jacobzelko.com/05022022155118-telehealth. May 2 2022.

References:

[1] “About telemedicine. Washington, DC: American Telemedicine Association.” https://www.americantelemed.org/main/about/%20about-telemedicine/telemedicine-faqs (accessed May 02, 2022).

[2] “Understanding the Medical Licensure Compact,” Federation of State Medical Boards, 2013. Accessed: May 02, 2022. [Online]. Available: http://www.fsmb.org/policy/advocacy-policy/interstate-model-proposed-medical-lic

Discussion:

What Is Telehealth?

Mon, 02 May 2022 00:00:00 +0000

What Is Telehealth?

Date: May 2 2022

Summary: An outline addressing what is telehealth and core components

Keywords: ##outline #telehealth #background #emergency #framework #quality #care #acute #chronic #archive

Bibliography

Not Available

1. Telehealth Background
2. Telehealth Frameworks and Systems
3. Telehealth Challenges
4. Telehealth Opportunities
5. Leading Successful Telehealth Interventions
6. Background
7. Telehealth Strategies or Frameworks
8. Challenges in Telehealth
9. Opportunities for Telehealth
10. Success in Telehealth Interventions
How To Cite
References:
Discussion:

Telehealth Background

TODO: Make its own note

[Telehealth Background]

- Telehealth Defined
- History of Telehealth
- Goals of Telehealth

Telehealth Frameworks and Systems

Emergency Frameworks

[NOTE](https://jacobzelko.com/05022022153220-evaluating-telehealth)
- [SPROUT Telehealth Evaluation and Measurement profile] [1]
	- Utilizes concepts from:
		- National Quality Forum
		- World Health Organization
		- Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
	- Reorganizes concepts into 4 clear measurement domains:
		- Health outcomes
		- Health delivery
		- Experience
		- Program implementation and key performance indicators 
	- Meant to communicate value to:
		- Patients
		- Providers
		- Health systems
		- Payer
- [NATO Multinational Telemedicine System]
[NOTE](https://jacobzelko.com/05022022171845-telehealth-global-emergencies)
- American Telemedicine Association Emergency and Response framework and infrastructure checklist [2]

Quality Assessment

- [National Quality Federation]

Telehealth Challenges

TODO: Make its own note

Anthropological concerns

- [Clinician Unwillingness]
- [Socialization]

[Quality of Care]
[Coding and Renumeration]
[Lack of Access]

Telehealth Opportunities

TODO: Make its own note

[Provider Benefits]
Specific populations

- [Chronic Conditions]
- [Acute Care]
- [Behavioral Health]

Leading Successful Telehealth Interventions

[Keys for Successful Interventions]

NOTE How to realize a successful telehealth intervention alongside medical professionals according to this paper:

Provide telehealth training
Create telehealth accreditation
Ensure proper funding
Structure care models to incorporate telehealth as a core foundation
Communicate to all stakeholders the best mode that they will receive
Incorporate routine evaluation and management of telehealth interventions

Background

Telehealth is the remote delivery of healthcare via telecommunication tools [3] and the transferral of medical information between sites via telecommunications to improve patient health. [4] The term telehealth is often used interchangeably with the term "telemedicine" as well [4], [5]

Given this definition, one of the most obvious goals of telehealth is to improve patient health and care. [3] Although this is the obvious and most idealistic goal for telehealth, there are other subtle goals of telehealth. For example, it may be to ease the burden to provider care or to assist with triage [6] or to enable cost savings for health systems or payers. [7]

Telehealth Strategies or Frameworks

SPROUT Telehealth Evaluation and Measurement profile [1]

- Utilizes concepts from:
	- National Quality Forum
	- World Health Organization
	- Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
- Reorganizes concepts into 4 clear measurement domains:
	- Health outcomes
	- Health delivery
	- Experience
	- Program implementation and key performance indicators 
- Meant to communicate value to:
	- Patients
	- Providers
	- Health systems
	- Payer

Challenges in Telehealth

NOTE [4]

Current Procedural Terminology Codes

- Get in the way currently of how individuals get paid for telehealth
- CPT Editorial panel working on this circa 2015

Interstate licensing and care provision

- Federation of State Medical Boards created the Interstate Medical Licensure Compact
	- Ease multistate licensing [8]
	- Not all states involved at the time of publication

Quality of Care

- National Quality Forum developing telehealth framework
	- Telehealth Framework To Support Measure Development 2016 - 2017
		- Developed to identify existing and potential telehealth metrics

Clinician unwillingness to use telehealth [9]

- Despite high funding in Australia, less than 1% of specialist consultations were telehealth-based [10]
- Clinicians must see telehealth interventions as normal [9]

Renumeration is important but is not the only thing that leads to a successful telehealth intervention
Some care cannot be provided remotely

- Such as lab tests
- Some physical examinations

Reimbursement issues

- Eligible for clinical facilities where shortage of health professionals (get citation)

Lack of socialization

- The digital divide [11]
	- Difference of access to telehealth based on:
		- Geography 
		- Social factors
	- Worst for the elderly
		- Only 58% of persons > 65 years old use Internet [12]

Opportunities for Telehealth

Advantages of telehealth

- Activate large number of care providers at once
- Enable better triage
- Provide care services when provider locations are unavailable
- Reduce person-to-person contact of disease transmission